Quantcast
Channel: articles – The Charnel-House
Viewing all 250 articles
Browse latest View live

Art into life

$
0
0

.
Marx once declared, critiquing Hegel, that the historical task confronting humanity was “to make the world philosophical.” Hegel had completed philosophy, effectively brought it to a close. Now all that was left was to make this philosophy real by transforming the world according to its dictates. As he put it:

It is a psychological law that the theoretical mind, once liberated in itself, turns into practical energy, and, leaving the shadowy empire of Amenthes as will, turns itself against the reality of the world existing without it. (From a philosophical point of view, however, it is important to specify these aspects better, since from the specific manner of this turn we can reason back towards the immanent determination and the universal historic character of a philosophy. We see here, as it were, its curriculum vitae narrowed down to its subjective point.) But the practice of philosophy is itself theoretical. It’s the critique that measures the individual existence by the essence, the particular reality by the Idea. But this immediate realization of philosophy is in its deepest essence afflicted with con­tradictions, and this its essence takes form in the appearance and imprints its seal upon it.

When philosophy turns itself as will against the world of appearance, then the system is lowered to an abstract totality, that is, it has become one aspect of the world which opposes another one. Its relationship to the world is that of reflection. Inspired by the urge to realize itself, it enters into tension against the other. The inner self-contentment and completeness has been broken. What was inner light has become consuming flame turning outwards. The result is that as the world becomes philosophical, philosophy also becomes worldly, that its realization is also its loss, that what it struggles against on the outside is its own inner deficiency, that in the very struggle it falls precisely into those defects which it fights as defects in the opposite camp, and that it can only overcome these defects by falling into them. That which opposes it and that which it fights is always the same as itself, only with factors inverted.

Reflecting on these lines nearly a century later, in the aftermath of the stillborn October Revolution, Karl Korsch famously concluded that “[p]hilosophy cannot be abolished without being realized.” In other words, it is vital not to cast philosophy unceremoniously aside simply because its time has passed. One must come to terms with it, and critically engage it, before doing away with it completely. Theodor Adorno’s Negative Dialectics, in many ways a sequel to Korsch’s essay on “Marxism and Philosophy,” thus begins with the sobering observation: “Philosophy, which once seemed obsolete, lives on because the moment to realize it was missed. The summary judgment that it had merely interpreted the world, that resignation in the face of reality had crippled it in itself, becomes a defeatism of reason after the attempt to change the world miscarried.”

Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395"

Alfred Sohn-Rethel, who corresponded for decades with Adorno, explained at the outset of his monumental work on Intellectual and Manual Labor, provided a clue as to what this might have meant:

[Work on the present study] began towards the end of the First World War and in its aftermath, at a time when the German proletarian revolution should have occurred and tragically failed. This period led me into personal contact with Ernst Bloch, Walter Benjamin, Max Horkheimer, Siegfried Kracauer, and Theodor W. Adorno, and the writings of Georg Lukács and Herbert Marcuse. Strange though it may sound I do not hesitate to say that the new development of Marxist thought which these people represent evolved as the theoretical and ideological superstructure of the revolution that never happened. In it re-echo the thunder of the gun battle for the Marstall in Berlin at Christmas 1918, and the shooting of the Spartacus rising in the following winter.

Korsch’s insight into this theme from the early thought of Karl Marx, reaffirmed subsequently by Adorno and his best followers, can be extended to encompass art and religion as well. For Hegel, of course, art and religion each provided — in their own, particular way — privileged access to the Absolute. Art reigned supreme in the ancient world, while religion dominated medieval thought (with its “great chain of being”). By the time Hegel was writing, however, these modes of apprehending the Absolute had been surpassed by philosophy, which rationally comprehended the Absolute Idea in its spiritual movement. Intuition and belief had been supplanted by knowledge. Science, or Wissenschaft, had been achieved.

Yet this achievement did not last long. After Hegel’s death, his successors — Left and Right, Young and Old — battled for possession of the master’s system. Only Marx succeeded in carrying it forward, precisely by realizing that philosophy itself must be overcome. The same may perhaps be said for those older forms of life which had the Absolute as their object, art and religion. Feuerbach’s religion of humanity, which read theology as secret anthropology, perhaps found its most revolutionary articulation in the writings of Bogdanov, Gorky, and Lunacharsky, who promoted a project of “God-building” [богостроиетльство]. Lenin rightly scolded them for their excessive, premature exuberance, but they were on the right track. Similarly, the avant-garde project of dissolving art into life, in hopes of bringing about the death of art, can be read as an effort to make the world artistic (“to make the world philosophical”). Or, better, to make the world a work of art.

Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395"Style: "1769395"

Accordingly, every man could be an artist, “a fisherman in the morning and a painter in the evening,” just as the young Marx suspected. Lukács’ colleague, Mikhail Lifshitz, already expanded on this claim in his own excellent notes on Karl Marx’s Philosophy of Art (1931). To say nothing of Antonio Labriola’s analogous claim from his 1899 collection, Socialism and Philosophy:

In the society of the future, in which we live with our hopes, and still more with a good many illusions that are not always the fruit of a well balanced imagination, there will grow out of all proportion, until they are legion, the number of men who will be able to discourse with that divine joy in research and that heroic courage of truth which we admire in a Plato, a Bruno, a Galilei. There may also multiply infinitely the individuals who, like Diderot, shall be able to write profound and beguiling things such as Jacques le Fataliste, which we now imagine to be unsurpassed. In the society of the future, in which leisure, rationally increased for all, shall give to all the requirements of liberty, the means of culture, and the right to be lazy, this lucky discovery of our Lafargue, there will be on every street corner some genius wasting his time, like old master Socrates, by working busily at some task not paid for in money.

What follows, then, are a couple excerpts. First from Leon Trotsky’s Literature and Revolution (1924), and after from Henri Lefebvre’s lecture on “Nature and Nature Conquered” (1959). Both of these, I like to think, corroborate my above claims. Moreover, I’m including illustrations from Vera Mukhina 1925 pamphlet Art into Life. Enjoy.

Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395"

Revolutionary and socialist art

Leon Trotsky
Literature and
Revolution
(1924)

.
Communist life will not be formed blindly, like coral islands, but will be built consciously, will be tested by thought, will be directed and corrected. Life will cease to be elemental, and for this reason stagnant. Man, who will learn how to move rivers and mountains, how to build peoples’ palaces on the peaks of Mont Blanc and at the bottom of the Atlantic, will not only be able to add to his own life richness, brilliancy, and intensity, but also a dynamic quality of the highest degree. The shell of life will hardly have time to form before it will burst open again under the pressure of new technical and cultural inventions and achievements. Life in the future will not be monotonous.

More than that. Man at last will begin to harmonize himself in earnest. He will make it his business to achieve beauty by giving the movement of his own limbs the utmost precision, purposefulness and economy in his work, his walk and his play. He will try to master first the semiconscious and then the subconscious processes in his own organism, such as breathing, the circulation of the blood, digestion, reproduction, and, within necessary limits, he will try to subordinate them to the control of reason and will. Even purely physiologic life will become subject to collective experiments. The human species, the coagulated Homo sapiens, will once more enter into a state of radical transformation, and, in his own hands, will become an object of the most complicated methods of artificial selection and psycho-physical training. This is entirely in accord with evolution. Man first drove the dark elements out of industry and ideology, by displacing barbarian routine by scientific technique, and religion by science. Afterwards he drove the unconscious out of politics, by overthrowing monarchy and class with democracy and rationalist parliamentarianism and then with the clear and open Soviet dictatorship. The blind elements have settled most heavily in economic relations, but man is driving them out from there also, by means of the Socialist organization of economic life. This makes it possible to reconstruct fundamentally the traditional family life. Finally, the nature of man himself is hidden in the deepest and darkest corner of the unconscious, of the elemental, of the sub-soil. Is it not self-evident that the greatest efforts of investigative thought and of creative initiative will be in that direction? The human race will not have ceased to crawl on all fours before God, kings and capital, in order later to submit humbly before the dark laws of heredity and a blind sexual selection! Emancipated man will want to attain a greater equilibrium in the work of his organs and a more proportional developing and wearing out of his tissues, in order to reduce the fear of death to a rational reaction of the organism towards danger. There can be no doubt that man’s extreme anatomical and physiological disharmony, that is, the extreme disproportion in the growth and wearing out of organs and tissues, give the life instinct the form of a pinched, morbid, and hysterical fear of death, which darkens reason and which feeds the stupid and humiliating fantasies about life after death.

Man will make it his purpose to master his own feelings, to raise his instincts to the heights of consciousness, to make them transparent, to extend the wires of his will into hidden recesses, and thereby to raise himself to a new plane, to create a higher social biologic type, or, if you please, a superman.

It is difficult to predict the extent of self-government which the man of the future may reach or the heights to which he may carry his technique. Social construction and psycho-physical self-education will become two aspects of one and the same process. All the arts – literature, drama, painting, music and architecture will lend this process beautiful form. More correctly, the shell in which the cultural construction and self-education of Communist man will be enclosed, will develop all the vital elements of contemporary art to the highest point. Man will become immeasurably stronger, wiser and subtler; his body will become more harmonized, his movements more rhythmic, his voice more musical. The forms of life will become dynamically dramatic. The average human type will rise to the heights of an Aristotle, a Goethe, or a Marx. And above this ridge new peaks will rise.

Style: "1769395"Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395"

Nature and nature conquered

Henri Lefebvre
Intro to Modernity
(September 1959)

.
Once the simplistic, scientistic, and positivist interpretations [of the Marxist project] have been abandoned — namely, the purely economic and purely sociological interpretations, according to which economic activity or the functioning of the social relations of production, made coherent by socialism, would be self-sufficient — two interpretations become possible. One gives priority to ethics, the other to aesthetics. According to the first, Communist society will gain control over nature (the physical, external world) and the productive forces, having first externalized the latter. This will facilitate the constitution of ethical relations between individuals and human groups. These relations will be based upon mutual recognition and the disappearance of the social mystery, and underpinned by complete equality between the surviving individuals and groups, as well as by the satisfying of basic or differentiated needs, including aspirations of an ethical character. At last man will appropriate the earth as a “general object.”

For the second interpretation, it is art which constitutes human power, and in its history we can see the beginnings of Communist society in embryo. In so far as it produces pleasure and joyfulness, art prefigures the possible relation between man and the world and between man and himself. It was always the highest form of creative work, towering above fragmented labor, knowledge and the trivial use of discourse and the sensory organs. If art, taken as a specialized activity, brought its own specific alienations, the supersession of art per se and its emergence into the entirety of life (into global praxis) would transform this life into complete physical fulfillment. Higher physical fulfillment as prefigured by art and generalized by the reintegration of art into life would be something loftier than the mere satisfaction of needs, even differentiated needs, throughout the course of history. The man of the future will enjoy the earth like a work of art.

Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" 01_stranitsa_06 01_stranitsa_21 Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395" Style: "1769395"

Tatlin’s tower

$
0
0
heree 2012Tatlin_emailPressimage_51 Татлин PH1993_0211 p19c0kgu47105ikd3ht41vq71hi03 tumblr_n1939yQmwT1r9xcmto2_500 tumblr_n1939yQmwT1r9xcmto1_1280

Nico Israel has a book out that looks fairly interesting, Spirals: The Whirled Image in Twentieth Century Art and Literature. In it he discusses Wyndham Lewis’ vorticism, Vladimir Tatlin’s monument to the Third International, land Robert Smithson’s Spiral Jetty (among other things). He also relates a few famous lines by Lenin about the spiraling course of the dialectic in history, from his 1915 Granat Encyclopedia entry on Karl Marx:

In our times, the idea of development, of evolution, has almost completely penetrated social consciousness, only in other ways, and not through Hegelian philosophy. Still, this idea, as formulated by Marx and Engels on the basis of Hegel’s philosophy, is far more comprehensive and far richer in content than the current idea of evolution is. A development that repeats, as it were, stages that have already been passed, but repeats them in a different way, on a higher basis (“the negation of the negation”), a development, so to speak, that proceeds in spirals, not in a straight line; a development by leaps, catastrophes, and revolutions; “breaks in continuity”; the transformation of quantity into quality; inner impulses towards development, imparted by the contradiction and conflict of the various forces and tendencies acting on a given body, or within a given phenomenon, or within a given society; the interdependence and the closest and indissoluble connection between all aspects of any phenomenon (history constantly revealing ever new aspects), a connection that provides a uniform, and universal process of motion, one that follows definite laws — these are some of the features of dialectics as a doctrine of development that is richer than the conventional one.

Marx and Engels were not the the first to put dialectical development in the shape of a spiral. As Lenin indicates, Hegel before him visualized it as such. There’s another source of the “whirled image” in Marx’s theory: Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi. Fredric Jameson pointed out in his recent book, Representing Capital, that “repetition — the selling of labor power week after week, its productive consumption by the capitalist in a cycle Sismondi rightly recharacterized as a spiral — never knew a first time in the first place.”

ia802601.us.archive.org-grerussi00schi_0020

For Marx, the spiral motion first appears as circulating capital:

Exchange-value posited as the unity of commodity and money is capital, and this positing itself appears as the circulation of capital. (Which is, however, a spiral, an expanding curve, not a simple circle)…As the subject predominant [übergreifend] over the different phases of this movement, as value sustaining and multiplying itself in it, as the subject of these metamorphoses proceeding in a circular course — as a spiral, as an expanding circle — capital is circulating capital. Circulating capital is therefore initially not a particular form of capital, but is rather capital itself, in a further developed aspect, as subject of the movement just described, which it, itself, is as its own realization process.

In Capital, Marx explicitly acknowledged his debt to Sismondi in this respect: “Looked at concretely, accumulation can be resolved into the production of capital on a progressively increasing scale. The cycle of simple reproduction alters its form and, to use Sismondi’s expression, changes into a spiral.” Put another way, capital comes to ground this expansive outward movement, in which all sorts of violent jolts, fits, and spasms take place. Capital in history establishes a sort of treadmill pattern of transformation and reconstitution, as the sociologist Moishe Postone put it. Yet without its integral antithesis, class conscious wage-laborers mobilized in opposition to it, capital’s inherent dynamism is itself diminished. Adorno thus astutely observed in his 1965 lectures on History and Freedom: “Without wasting time on the overworked notion of a spiral development in history, it can be said that a direct progress towards freedom cannot be discerned.” (Rodney Livingstone suspected Adorno might have had Toynbee in mind, but I think he was commenting on the old Leninist dictum).

When Tatlin built his monument to the Third Revolution, progress did not seem such an impossibility. Though Europe lay in ruins, a new world seemed to open up. A hundred years on, this possibility seems by now closed. In our present moment, the key to the future resides in the past. Below are a few period pieces reflecting on Tatlin’s tower that express this bygone sensibility. Enjoy.

13063320625_b335c72fbf_o

The monument to the Third International

Nikolai Punin
Iskusstvo kommuny
September 1920

.
In 1919 the Department of Fine Arts within the People’s Commissariat for Enlightenment commissioned the artist V. E. Tatlin to develop a design for a monument to the Third International. The artist Tatlin immediately set to work and produced a design. The artists I.A. Meerzon, M.P. Vinogradov, and T.M. Shapiro formed a “Creative Collective,” then developed the design in detail and constructed a model.

The main idea of the monument is based on an organic synthesis of the principles of architecture, sculpture and painting and was intended to produce a new type of monumental structure, uniting in itself a purely creative form with a utilitarian form. In accordance with this idea, the design of the monument consists of three large glass structures, erected by means of a complex system of vertical struts and spirals. These structures are arranged one above the other and are contained within different, harmoniously related forms. A special type of mechanism would enable them to move at different speeds. The lower structure (A), in the form of a cube, moves on its axis at the speed of one revolution a year and is intended for legislative purposes. Here may be held conferences of the International, meetings of international congresses and other broadly legislative meetings… The next structure (B), in the form of a pyramid, rotates on its axis at the speed of one full revolution a month and is intended for executive functions (the Executive Committee of the International, the secretariat and other administrative and executive  bodies). Finally, the upper cylinder (C), rotating at a speed of one revolution a day, is intended to be a resource center for the following facilities: an information office; a newspaper; the publication of proclamations, brochures and manifestos — in a word, all the various means of broadly informing the international proletariat, and in particular a telegraph, projectors for a large screen located on the axes of a spherical segment (a1-b3), and a radio station, the masts of which rise above the monument. There is no need to point out the enormous possibilities for equipping and organizing these structures. The details of the design have not yet been specified, they can be discussed and worked out (luring subsequent elaboration of the monument’s interior.

1-татлин4

punin_pamyatnik_iii_internatsionala_proyekt_tatlina-1 punin_pamyatnik_iii_internatsionala_proyekt_tatlina-2 punin_pamyatnik_iii_internatsionala_proyekt_tatlina-3 punin_pamyatnik_iii_internatsionala_proyekt_tatlina-4 punin_pamyatnik_iii_internatsionala_proyekt_tatlina-5 punin_pamyatnik_iii_internatsionala_proyekt_tatlina-6 punin_pamyatnik_iii_internatsionala_proyekt_tatlina-7

It is necessary to explain that according to the artist Tatlin”s conception, the glass structures should have vacuum walls (a thermos) which will make it easy to maintain a constant temperature within the edifice. The separate parts of the monument will be connected to one another and to the ground by means exclusively of complexly structured electrical elevators, adjusted to the differing rotation speeds of the structures. Such are the technical bases of the project.

The artistic significance of the project

.
A social revolution by itself does not change artistic forms, but it does provide a basis for their gradual transformation. The idea of monumental propaganda has not changed sculpture or sculptors, but it has struck at the very principle of plastic appearance which prevails in the bourgeois world. Renaissance traditions in the plastic arts appear modern only while the feudal and bourgeois roots of capitalist states remain undestroyed. The Renaissance burned out, but only now is the charred ruin of Europe being purged.

It is true that Communist governments for a certain time will use, as a means of monumental propaganda, figurative monuments in the style of Greek and Italian classicism, but this is only because these governments are forced to use them in the same way as they are compelled to use specialists of the prerevolutionary school. Figurative monuments (Greek and Italian) are at variance with contemporary reality in two respects. They cultivate individual heroism and conflict with history: torsos and heads of heroes (and gods) do not correspond to the modern interpretation of history. Their forms are too private for places where there are ten versts of proletarians in rows. At best they express the character, feelings and thoughts of the hero, but who expresses the tension of the emotions and the thoughts of the collective thousand. A type?

ia802601.us.archive.org-grerussi00schi_0293 copy

But a type concretizes, limits, and levels the mass. The mass is richer, more alive, more complicated and more organic.

But even if a type is portrayed, figurative monuments contradict actuality even more through the limitation of their expressive means, their static quality. The agitational action of such monuments is extraordinarily weak amidst the noise, movement and dimensions of the streets. Thinkers on granite plinths perhaps see many, but few see them. They are constrained by the form which evolved when sailing ships, transport by mule and stone cannon balls flourished.

A wartime telephone wire hits the hero’s nose, a tram stop is more of an obelisk, townspeople recall Lassalle more times each day through book covers and newspaper headlines in libraries, than through passing by, beneath his proud head. Lassalle stands unseen and unneeded ever since the end of the unveiling ceremony…

A monument must live the social and political life of the city and the city must live in it. It must be necessary and dynamic, then it will be modern. The forms of contemporary, agitational plastic arts lie beyond the depiction of man as an individual. They are found by the artist who is not crippled by the feudal and bourgeois traditions of the Renaissance, but who has labored like a worker on the three unities of contemporary Plastic consciousness: material, construction, volume. Working on material, construction and volume, Tatlin has produced a form which is new in the world of monumental creation. Such a form is the monument to the Third International.

The best artist in the Russia of the Workers and Peasants (his life proving his knowledge of the working masses), was commissioned a year ago to develop a design for a monument to the Third International. The project which has been designed is not only completely remarkable as a manifestation of contemporary artistic life, but it can also be interpreted as a profound break in the deadening circle of the overripe and decadent art of our time. Art is embracing the twentieth century, delineating areas of development in all aspects of creative activity. Regarding myself competent, to some extent, in artistic matters, I consider that this project is an international event in the art world.

Image

One of the most complex cultural problems is solved before our very eves: a utilitarian form appears as a purely creative form. Once again a new classicism becomes possible, not as a renaissance but as an invention. The theorists of the international workers’ movement have long sought a classical content for socialist culture. Here it is. We maintain that the present project is the first revolutionary artistic work, and one which we can send to Europe.

Form in the project is placed along two axes aa1 and bb3), which are in a constant state of conflict. The line a to a1 develops into a movement upwards which is broken at each point by the movement of the spirals from b, b1 b2 b3, to the line aa1. The collision of these two movements (by their very nature mutually contradictory) must produce a break — such as characterized “cubism” (long since left behind), and entail the destruction of the utilitarian idea. But the converging spirals, adopting the movement of aa1 (and bb3), carry these lines above and beyond the movement of the main support (girder aa1) to the same point, producing a dynamic image, imbued with the powerful tension of endlessly disturbed and clashing axes. The whole form oscillates like a steel snake, constrained and organized by the one general movement of all the parts, to raise itself above the earth. The form wants to overcome the material and the force of gravity, the strength of the resistance is enormous and massive: straining every muscle, the form finds an outlet through the most elastic and rapid lines which the world knows, through spirals. They are full of movement, aspiration, and speed: they are taut like the creative will and like a muscle tensed with a hammer.

The application of the spiral and its organization into a modern form is, by itself, an enrichment of the composition. In the same way as the equilibrium of the parts in a triangle makes it the best expression of the Renaissance, so the best expression of our spirit is the spiral. The interaction of weight and support is the most pure (classical) form of stasis; the classical form of dynamism is the spiral. Societies divided by class fought to own the earth, the line of their movement is horizontal. The spiral is the movement of liberated humanity. The spiral is the ideal expression of liberation: with its base set in the earth, it flees from the ground and becomes a symbol of the suspension of all animal, earthly, and groveling interests.

Bourgeois societies love to develop the animal life on top of the earth, working its surface: they build shops, arcades, banks. Bourgeois life, based on the urban squares, was played out in full view and for show. Creative humanity disappears with its animal life into the earth, where the cooperatives’ work is not visible. The square is a place for agitation, games and for festivals. Emancipated life rises above the earth, above grey and earthly materials. As living accommodation and social space carried to a level above the earth, the building is an expression of modernity and the content of contemporary life. At the same time, it comprises the content of a great artistic form.

Tatlin_Tower_Workers

The content of any form can be taken and condensed by utility, because the utility of a form is nothing other than the organization of its content. Forms devoid of practical significance (the majority of artistic forms which have existed up to now), are simply forms which are not organized. And perhaps the principle of organization ha s for the first time actually been realized in art. The monument is calculated on the concentration of legislative (Structure A), executive (Structure B) and informative (Structure C) initiatives; furthermore, in accordance with the stated principle of expressing modernity, these structures are raised into a higher level of space. In this way, and through the material (glass), the purity of the initiatives, their liberation from material constraints and their ideal qualities arc stressed. An art devoid of creative idealism which is the content of intuition, is an art of impure rhythm. Up to now no one has succeeded in breaking rhythms down into the elements of material culture which define the growth and conditions of existence. But life itself consists of rhythms. Intuition flows in accordance with these rhythms. The purity and the intensity of the rhythms define the degree of talent, but I know of no more pure or intense rhythms than those in Tatlin’s work. He possesses an eye of the greatest sensitivity with respect to material and it is precisely the juxtaposition of materials which defines the limits of the rhythmic waves. We accept, as a basis, that the unit of a rhythm is the section of a wave, enclosed between the qualities of the glass and the qualities of the iron. Just as the production of a number of oscillations along a wave is a spatial measure of sound, so the relationship of glass to iron is a measure of material rhythm. There is a stern and incandescent simplicity hidden in the juxtaposition of these two most elementary materials, both in a similar way brought into existence by fire. These materials are the elements of modern art. The form, defined by their juxtaposition, produces a rhythm of such broad and powerful oscillation that it seems like the birth of an ocean.

To translate this form into reality means to realize a dynamism of the same unsurpassed greatness as that embodied in the stasis of the pyramid. We maintain that only the full power of the multimillion strong proletarian consciousness could bring into the world the idea of this monument and its forms. The monument must be realized by the muscles of this power, because we have an ideal, living and classical expression the pure and creative form of the international union of the workers of the whole world.

Russland - die Rekonstruktion der Architektur in der Sowjetunion

The monument to the Third International (Tatlin’s most recent work)

Viktor Shklovsky
Knight’s Move
September 1921

.
The days run together like train cars overflowing with strange and variegated vehicles, cannons, crowds yelling about something or other. The days thunder like a pile driver, blow after blow, and the blows have already blended and ceased to be heard, just as people living by the sea don’t hear the sound of the water. The blows thunder somewhere in the chest below consciousness.

We are living in the quiet of thunder.

In this paved air has been born the iron spiral of a project: a monument the size of two Cathedrals of St. Isaac’s.

This spiral, which is leaning on its side, is prevented from collapsing by its powerful, diagonally standing form.

Such a basic structure of the project for a monument to the Third International is the work of the artist Tatlin.

The twists and turns of the spiral are united by a network of leaning stanchions. In their transparent hollow turn three geometric bodies. Below moves a cylinder with a speed of one turn a year; the pyramid above it turns once a month and the ball at the apex completes a full turn every day. The waves of the radio station standing at the very apex continue the monument into the air.

tumblr_m1gr4bd35k1rocbcwo1_500

Here for the first time iron is standing on its hind legs and seeking its artistic formula.

In the age of construction cranes, as fine as the wisest Martian, iron has the right to go on a rampage and to remind people that our “age,” for some reason or other, has been calling itself the “iron” age since the time of Ovid, though there was, as yet, no iron art. One could argue at length about the monument. The bodies turning in its body are small and relatively light in comparison to its enormous “general” body. Their turning itself hardly changes its appearance. It has more the character of a project than a finished product. The monument is imbued with utilitarianism. This spiral may not aspire to be an apartment building, but all the same it is somehow being put to good use.

According to the plan, in the lower cylinder we have the rotating Sovnarkom [Sovet Narodnykh Komissarov] in the shape of a globe, and in the upper cylinder we have “Rosta”[Rossiiskoe Telegrafnoe Agentstvo]. The word in poetry is not just a word. It draws in its wake dozens and thousands of associations. It is permeated with them just as the Petersburg air during a blizzard is permeated with snow.

A painter or a counter-relief artist is not free to choose in this blizzard of associations the movement across the canvas of a painting or between the stanchions of an iron spiral. These works of art have their own semantics.

The Soviet of People’s Commissars has been taken by Tatlin into the monument, or so it seems to me, as new artistic material, which will be used along with “ROSTA” for the creation of artistic form.

The monument is made of iron, glass and revolution.

Style: "1042949"

Tatlin’s monument to the Third International

Louis Lozowick
Broom Monthly
October, 1922

.
The magic word in modern Russian art: Construction.

Construction, and not composition, teaches the new Gospel.

Why?

Because composition is inspired by the past, looks toward the past, and therefore, belongs to the past; because composition means ornamentation, decoration, romanticism, prettiness; because composition stands apart from life, serves as illusion to exhausted mentality, acts as stimulant to enervated organism.

And construction?

Construction is inspired by what is most characteristic of our epoch: industry, machinery, science. Construction borrows the methods and makes use of the materials common in the technical processes. Hence iron, glass, concrete, circle, triangle, cube, cylinder, synthetically combined with mathematical precision and structural logic. Construction scorns prettiness, seeks strength, clarity, simplicity, acts as stimulus to a vigorous life.

Thus exegetics.

Pages from bmtnaap_1922-10_01_Page_1

Pages from bmtnaap_1922-10_01_Page_2 Pages from bmtnaap_1922-10_01_Page_3

Tatlin is the leading Russian artist-constructor and his monument to the Third International is one of his best works — certainly one that occasioned the greatest controversy in Russia. A great admirer of Tatlin, N. Punin (to whom this note is indebted for part of its data) considers the creation of the monument an event of international importance.

In 1919, the Art Section of the People’s Commissariat of Education commissioned Tatlin to prepare projects for a monument to the Third International. After a year and a half’s work, drawings and a model were ready for exhibition and examination at the Eight All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Tatlin and his assistants were there in person, explaining the work to the various Soviet Representatives assembled from all parts of Russia, thus disseminating the Gospel of construction over a wide area.

The monument purports to embody creative and utilitarian aims and to synthesize sculpture, painting, architecture, and engineering. It is to be constructed of glass and iron, two building materials characteristic]of today (curiously enough no concrete is considered). Modern building materials introduce essential changes into the practices and principles of architecture. Iron though extremely resistant can be cast and molded to any required shape. This makes the cohesion and solidity of a building independent of the formerly rigid load-and-support relation. The strength of iron allows the distribution or concentration of the load, the building of slanting or circular walls. Wide utilization of glass transforms the problem of lighting.

The monument of Tatlin has evidently been planned with full knowledge of these changes in architecture. When completed, the monument will measure four hundred meters in height. It will be built in the form of a huge iron spiral leaning at an angle of forty-five degrees and enclosing three stories all made of glass. The first story will be a gigantic rotating cube making one revolution a year. This is intended for legislative sessions of Soviet representatives from the whole earth. The second story, somewhat smaller, will be a pyramid, likewise rotating but making one revolution a month. This is to serve for executive sessions of the Soviets. The third story, the smallest of all, will be a cylinder making a revolution every day. It is to be used as a center of information.

Why these different velocities ? Cosmic symbolism perhaps (romanticism slipping in by a back door) ; earth moving around in (year), moon around earth (month), earth on its own axis (day). Desired temperature, both summer and winter, will be maintained by an immense thermos enclosing the three stories. Communication between the stories and the world outside will be carried by means of a complicated electric apparatus. A wireless station will be installed on the top of the monument. It is not to be forgotten that the monument to the Third International exists only as a project. With the limited means at the disposal of Soviet Russia, the execution of the project is postponed far into the future — to say the least. The Philistine enemies of constructive art dare calmly to maintain that the erection of the monument is a engineering feat altogether beyond possibilities of realization. To which the faithful retort with the story of the telegraph, the airplane, etc. A weary exercise.

61

Revolutionary and socialist art

Leon Trotsky
Literature and
Revolution
(1923)

.
Ultimately, the destructiveness of wars and revolutions will give a powerful impetus to architecture, in the same way as the fire of 1812 helped to beautify Moscow. In Russia, the cultural material to be destroyed was less than in other countries, the destruction was greater than in other countries, while the rebuilding is immeasurably more difficult than in other countries. It is not surprising, then, that we have had no time for architecture, one of the most monumental of arts.

At present we are beginning to repair the pavements a little, to re-lay the sewage pipes, to finish the unfinished houses left to us as a heritage — but we are only beginning. We made the buildings of our Agricultural Exhibition out of wood. We must still put off all large-scale construction. The originators of gigantic projects, men like Tatlin, are given involuntarily a respite for more thought, for revision, and for radical reexamination. But one must not imagine that we are planning to repair old pavements and houses for decades to come. In this process, as in all other processes, there are periods of repair, of slow preparation and accumulation of forces, and periods of rapid development. As soon as a surplus will come after the most urgent and acute needs of life are covered, the Soviet state will take up the problem of gigantic constructions that will suitably express the monumental spirit of our epoch. Tatlin is undoubtedly right in discarding from his project national styles, allegorical sculpture, modeled monograms, flourishes, and tails, and attempting to subordinate the entire design to a correct constructive use of material. This has been the way that machines, bridges and covered markets have been built, for a long time. But Tatlin has still to prove that he is right in what seems to be his own personal invention: a rotating cube, a pyramid, and a cylinder all of glass. For good or bad, circumstances are going to give him plenty of time to find arguments for his side.

IMG_20120410_012517

De Maupassant hated the Eiffel Tower, in which no one is forced to imitate him. But it is undoubtedly true that the Eiffel Tower makes a dual impression; one is attracted by the technical simplicity of its form, and, at the same time, repelled by its aimlessness. It is an extremely rational utilization of material for the purpose of making a high structure. But what is it for? It is not a building, but an exercise. At present, as everyone knows, the Eiffel Tower serves as a radio station. This gives it a meaning, and makes it aesthetically more unified. But if the tower had been built from the very beginning as a radio station, it probably would have attained a higher rationality of form, and so therefore a higher perfection of art.

From this point of view Tatlin’s project for a monument appears much less satisfactory. The purpose of the main building is to make glass headquarters for the meetings of the World Council of People’s Commissars, for the Communist International, etc. But the props and the piles which are to support the glass cylinder and the pyramid — and they are there for no other purpose — are so cumbersome and heavy that they look like unremoved scaffolding. One cannot think what they are for. They say: they are there to support the rotating cylinder in which the meetings will take place. But one answers: Meetings are not necessarily held in a cylinder and the cylinder does not necessarily have to rotate. I remember seeing once when a child, a wooden temple built in a beer bottle. This fired my imagination, but I did not ask myself at that time what it was for. Tatlin proceeds by a reverse method; he wants to construct a beer bottle for the World Council of People’s Commissars which would sit in a spiral concrete temple. But for the moment, I cannot refrain from the question: What is it for? To be more exact: we would probably accept the cylinder and its rotating, if it were combined with a simplicity and lightness of construction, that is, if the arrangements for its rotating did not depress the aim. Nor can we agree with the arguments which are given to interpret the artistic significance of the sculpture by Jacob Lipshitz. Sculpture must lose its fictitious independence, an independence which only means that it is relegated to the backyards of life or lies vegetating in dead museums, and it must revive in some higher synthesis its connection with architecture. In this broad sense, sculpture has to assume a utilitarian purpose. Very good, then. But it is not at all clear how one is to approach the Lipshitz sculpture from such a point of view. I have a photograph of several intersecting planes, which are supposed to be the outlines of a man sitting with a stringed instrument in his hands. We are told that if today it is not utilitarian, it is “purposeful.” In what way? To judge purposiveness, one has to know the purpose. But when one stops to think of the purposefulness and possible utility of those numerous intersecting planes and pointed forms and protrusions, one comes to the conclusion that, as a last resort, one could transform such a piece of sculpture into a hat-rack. Still, if it had been the sculptor’s plan to make a sculptured hat-rack, he would have probably found a more purposeful form for it. At any rate, we cannot recommend that a plaster-cast be made of it for hat-racks.

We must therefore assume that the Lipshitz sculpture, like the word-forms of Kruchenikh, are merely exercises in technique, like the playing of scales and passages. They are exercises in the verbal and sculptural music of the future. But one should not hand exercises out as music. It is better not to let them out of the studio, nor to show them to a photographer.

Tatlin-Monument-5

The Bolshevik monumental style

René Fülöp-Miller
The Mind and Face
of Bolshevism
(1925)

.
It was an architect named Tatlin, who made the first attempt to attain a permanent proletarian style of monumental importance, an attempt which really arose out of a protest against the “monumental propaganda” as practiced hitherto Tatlin pointed out that all the “isms,” however radical they might appear, stopped at superficialities, and had not revolutionized the innermost meaning of every work of art, and above all its mission What was the use of dissecting monuments into cubes and planes, which have external “deformation,” so long as the mission and essence of these monuments themselves corresponded to an entirely bourgeois idea. Was it not the same evil and notorious hero-worship of the bourgeoisie which was conspicuous in all these cubistically treated monuments? What had the collective man, the new proletarian culture of the masses, to do with this sort of reverence for individual personalities. Every cubofuturistic triumphal avenue, however radical it might be, was really a piece of bourgeois art, for it cultivated individual heroism, and thus denied the results of the proletarian view of history.

“Figures of gods and heroes,” says Tatlin,

are not consistent with the modern conception of history ; they are unfitted to symbolize the present age, which has to do with mile long columns of proletarians. At the best, they enforce the character, feeling, and method of thought of a revolutionary hero, but they must fail to give expression to the concentrated sentiment of a collective thousand-headed mass. They may, it is true, reveal the configuration of the type; but the mass — which in itself is richer, more vital, and more organic — concretizes, and levels this. Even in its static aspect, this form is opposed to the spirit of the time, and therefore affords only a limited means of expression. Further, the effect of such monuments for purposes of propaganda, m the midst of the noise, the life, and the motion in the wide streets of the modern city, is very doubtful These watchers raised aloft on granite pedestals may themselves see a great deal, but they are not noticed by others and attract no attention. The form in which they are chiseled arose at a time when people at the best moved about on mules ; but the telephone wire of modern war makes the antique hero ridiculous, the tramway standards replace the obelisks of old days. The modern monument must reflect the social life of the city, the city itself must live in it. Only the rhythm of the metropolis, of factories and machines, together with the organization of the masses, can give the impulse to the new art. Therefore, the forms of revolutionary propagandist sculpture must go beyond the representation of the individual, and spring from the spirit of collectivism.

For these reasons Tatlin recommends the “mechanical image,” the “monument of the machine,” as the only adequately powerful expression of the present, which, by its dynamic agitation, its technical rationalism, and its utilitarian importance, can most readily express the corresponding features of the time. But the machine is in the closest organic connection with industrial development, and thus with the proletariat itself; the adaptation to its ends and its rhythm thus represent the true spirit of the proletariat.

tumblr_mbz8yzoA9M1robj1ao10_r1_1280

In accordance with the principle of utilitarian importance, the “monument of the machine,” planned by Tatlin himself, was to fulfill, not only an aesthetic, but also a practical function. Radio and telegraph stations, placed in the interior of the monument, were to maintain permanent contact with revolutionary reality This movement has been of decisive importance for the further artistic development of Soviet Russia, it forms the first attempt, although on quite crude lines, to work out the basic principles of a new constructive art, and so to found a “dynamic-monumental architecture.” Henceforth, the slogan was that monumentality must be conceived, not as hitherto, statically, but dynamically, in accordance with the new spirit of the revolutionary age. This modern style was to be attained by the endeavor to intensify and resolve the energies inherent in the material and the constructions proceeding therefrom into a movement of all forms.

The idea that the material should not be treated as dead matter, but as the expression of the energies latent in it, thus played the most important and significant part in this “dynamic-monumental art.” The material attributes of the material used should also express the profound sense of the collective Tedious scientific, technical, and artistic investigations were made into the question of what building material was most useful to symbolize this proletarian culture. Of all the contradictory views on the subject, those of Trotsky may be regarded as the most interesting. He proclaimed that metal is the foundation of scientific industrial organization, and, consequently, it should also be the material of the new proletarian style in contrast to the past wood culture. The coming age should be the age of iron, concrete, and glass.

In agreement with this view of the most prominent Bolshevik leader, the representatives of all artistic schools later concurred in rejecting stone and wood as bourgeois, “counterrevolutionary” material, and in recommending metal, concrete, and glass for the purposes of proletarian architecture. In addition to the use of “these revolutionary building materials,” a heightened dynamics and the dissolution of all the static principles hitherto observed were to help to express the new age.

Thereafter, artistic feeling gravitated more and more towards a “technical” architecture, which further had to be accepted as the most fitting expression of the million-headed proletarian consciousness, as the ideal, vital, even classical artistic form of the “dynamic-monumental style.” Two grandiose schemes were regarded as the turning-point in the development of Russian art, Tatlin’s scheme for a monument to the Third International in Petersburg, and the plan for the “Palace of Labor” in Moscow. The first was drafted on the commission of the Central Office for Graphic Art in the People’s Commissariat for Education, and, according to the statements of a Bolshevik historian of art, is to consist of a union of three great glass chambers, connected by a system of vertical axes and spirals.

These chambers are arranged vertically above one another, and surrounded by various harmonious structures By means of special machinery they must be kept in perpetual motion, but at different rates of speed. The lowest chamber is cubiform, and turns on its axis once a year, it is to be used for legislative purposes, in future the conferences of the International and the meetings of congresses and other bodies will be held in it. The chamber above this is pyramidal in shape, and makes one revolution a month, administrative and other executive bodies will hold their meetings there Finally, the third and highest part of the building is m the shape of a cylinder, and turns on its axis once a day. This part of the building will be used chiefly for information and propaganda, that is, as a bureau of information, for newspapers, and also as the place whence brochures and manifestos will be issued. Telegraphs, radio-apparatus, and lanterns for cinematographic performances will be installed here.

Not content with the technical marvel of revolving rooms, Tatlin also conceived a system of double walls with air-tight chambers between them, on the plan of the thermos flask, so as to maintain a constant temperature in the building The individual parts of the building, and also the side rooms, were to be connected by a complicated system of lifts, which were to be adapted to the various rates of revolution.

84

Apart from these extraordinary technical novelties, the monument had further a special ideological importance; here, too, it will be best to reproduce textually as far as possible the comments of the historian of art quoted above:

The whole monument rests on two main axes which are closely connected. In the direction of these axes an upward movement is accomplished on the one hand, but, on the other hand, this is crossed transversely at each of its points by the movement of the spirals. The junction of these two dynamic forces, which are by nature opposed to each other, is intended to express annihilation; but the spirals turning in the opposite direction, by the upward effort of the mam structure, produces a dynamic form, which is moved by a system of ever tense, ever agitated axes cutting each other (!). The form will conquer matter, the force of attraction, and seeks a way out with the help of the most elastic and volatile lines existing with the help of the spirals. These are full of movement, elasticity and speed , stiffly stretched like the muscles of a smith hammering iron. In itself the use of spirals for monumental architecture means an enrichment of the composition. Just as the triangle, as an image of general equilibrium, is the best expression of the Renaissance (!), so the spiral is the most effective symbol of the modern spirit of the age. The countering of gravitation by buttresses is the purest classical form of statics, the classical form of dynamics, on the other hand, is the spiral. While the dynamic line of bourgeois society, aiming at possession of the land and the soil, was the horizontal, the spiral, which, rising from the earth, detaches itself from all animal, earthly, and oppressing interests, forms the purest expression of humanity set free by the Revolution. The bourgeois social order developed an animal life on earth, tilled the soil, and there erected shops, arcades, and banks, the life of the new humanity rises ever higher and higher above the ground. At the same time, the arrangement of the contents of these architectural forms signifies their usefulness. Most of the elements of architecture hitherto in use possessed no practical importance, and remained unorganized. Today the principle of organization must rule and penetrate all art. The monument unites legislative initiative with the executive and with information, to each of these functions a position in space has been assigned corresponding to its nature. In this way, and also by means of the chief building material used, glass, the purity and clearness of initiative and its freedom from all material encumbrance is symbolically indicated.

Just as the product of the number of oscillations and the wavelength is the spatial measure of sound, so the proportion between glass and iron is the measure of the material rhythm. By the union of these two fundamentally important materials, a compact and imposing simplicity and, at the same time, relationship are expressed since these materials, for both of which fire is the creator of life form the elements of modern art. By their union, rhythms must be created of mighty power, as though an ocean were being born. By the translation of these forms into reality, dynamics will be embodied in unsurpassable magnificence, just as the pyramids once and for all expressed the principle of statics.

By the “machine art” of Tatlin, the “moving monuments,” and “dynamic-monumental buildings,” whose forms and rhythms are fitted for the new mechanical idols, the whole conception of Bolshevik art assumed a fundamentally different trend. In a number of decrees the forms of technical products, airplanes, skyscrapers, and ironclads were put forward as models, and rational construction was elevated to the criterion of aesthetic value.

Manifestos and plans, that is all that has come down to posterity of the whole “revolutionary-constructive” art, of Tatlin’s “movable buildings,” of the dynamic monumental style, of the rational rebuilding of towns and the new dwellings for the mass man, and thus of all the noisily proclaimed new proletarian culture. Only from monuments on paper shall we be able to discover what this period thought, attempted, longed, and hoped for.

still_Tatli_tower

tatlin-third-international tumblr_m46kc9G2b01qb88o6o1_1280 c48-maqueta-para-el-monumento-a-la-iii-internacional-tatlin 1-99 12y3 v800_БАШНЯ ТАТЛИНА_1_ TATLIN,%20Vlagyimir,%20a%20III.%20Internationale%20eml%E9km%FBve,%20modell,%201919 vladimir_tatlin_model_for_the_monument_to_the_third_international_1919-201305236099535-13E76513FBC2AE1A6BF 0_8a02a_75983ad2_XXXL

Современная архитектура: Organ of architectural modernism in the Soviet Union, 1926-1930

$
0
0

 
Sovremennaia arkhitektura
[Modern Architecture, or SA] was published every other month by the Society of Modern Architects [OSA] from 1926 to 1930. In all, the magazine ran for thirty issues, counting double-issues as two. A few years ago I uploaded some crude photographs of individual pages from originals stored in Columbia’s Avery Library. Tatlin has since republished the iconic journal, however, so anyone with the money and means to scan them could upload much higher-quality versions. For now, here are some that have been digitized for the Russian website Techne, which I’ve taken the liberty of running through ABBYY FineReader:

Moisei Ginzburg served as SA’s chief editor from its inaugural issue through to the end of 1928. Victor, Aleksandr, and Leonid Vesnin also helped organize it and solicit articles. The journal was intended to function primarily as a theoretical organ for constructivist architecture, providing a forum for debate and a platform for the promotion of avant-garde ideas about building methods and design. It was formatted by Aleksei Gan, author of the 1922 treatise Konstruktivizm, who sought to systematize the constructive principles of Tatlin and Rodchenko. Nevertheless, this continuity in terms of personnel should not blind us to the fact that architectural constructivism was distinct from constructivism in art. By 1926, SA’s various editors and contributors had absorbed the influence of Le Corbusier in France, JJP Oud in Holland, as well as Walter Gropius and the Bauhaus school in Germany. Ginzburg and the Vesnins regarded Tatlin’s old proposal for a monument to the Third International as a bit of impracticable symbolism. El Lissitzky explained in 1928 that “[t]he present ‘constructivist’ generation of professional architects looks upon this work [by Tatlin] as formalistic or even ‘symbolic’.”

first OSA conference 1928OSA members

In addition to its own articles, SA also translated texts from prominent European and American modernists such as Bruno Taut, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier. Journalistic coverage of international events, like the Stuttgart-Weißenhof exhibition in 1927, also appeared in its pages. Occasionally polemics were written, usually against the older, academic forms of architecture, but also against rival avant-garde tendencies such as VOPRA and ASNOVA. Toward the end of its run, under Roman Khiger’s editorship, there was an editorial dispute over the question of cities, as many wondered whether urban agglomerations would endure the abolition of the town and country divide. Some — like Ginzburg, Barsch, and Pasternak — sided with the sociologist Mikhail Okhitovich, embracing his “disurbanist” vision of ribbon cities and decentralized dwelling spaces. Others — the Vesnins, Krasil’nikov, and Burov — sided with the economist Leonid Sabsovich, advocating his “urbanist” proposals for mid-sized concentric cities of about 50,000 a pop. In 1931, however, the magazine was dissolved into Sovetskaia arkhitektura [Soviet Architecture], and included representatives of other schools of architectural thought besides constructivism.

Below are some of the page scans, which you can enlarge by clicking on them. You can also read an uncharacteristically favorable review by the Dutch modernist and De Stijl founder Theo van Doesburg, where he discusses SA in the context of Russia and the international style.

d181d0bed0b2d0b0d180d185

The capital vs. the countryside:

             OSA’s propaganda for a modern communist architecture

Theo van Doesburg
Het Bouwbedrijf
February 1929
.

Translated by Charlotte I. Loeb and Arthur L. Loeb.
On European Architecture: Complete Essays from
Het Bouwbedrijf. (Bïrkhauser, Berlin: 1990)

 
Without any doubt a small country will succeed faster in the realization of its cultural potential than will such an immensely vast country as Russia. Did they not recently discover a city of around 60,000 inhabitants there, in which the population was still living completely according to the notions of the 18th century? These people are totally ignorant, lived in the most primitive way, lacked the simplest modern lighting fixtures, etc., and were completely unaware of the events in Europe, the war, and the Russian Revolution.

How will the Russian authorities, no matter of which persuasion, ever be able to “electrify,” as Lenin called it, not only the cities, but the countryside as well? Such a country, the size of half a continent, should be measured by a different standard, and doubtlessly it is beyond the Russian mentality to initiate a well-balanced cultural development, comparable to that in other European counties. In the latter, even the most remote province has a cultural nucleus from where the countryside can be culturally controlled. Formerly, religion used to constitute this cultural nucleus, and construction served religion. In Russia, however, culture is concentrated between Moscow and Leningrad. In this zone new architecture has potential for realization. Russia totally lacks the neutralization of the cultural factors across the whole country, which is beneficial to the development of construction. Holland and Germany are in this favorable position, and this is the cause of the prominence which these countries have achieved in the field of architecture.

Partial view of the lateral façade of the Rusakov Club, Moscow, 1929 or later

In Russia, everything is grandiose…in conception, architecture, and the freely creative arts as well, but in the long run everything gets lost in detail, in vapidities, before being finally crushed by the country’s enormous size. Although architecture is primarily the functional control of space, for the new generation in Russia as well, it is secondly the organization of required materials, and finally, in its completion, a life structure. These are the three fundamental tasks to be fulfilled by the new Russian architecture…but they will, alas, never be fulfilled, in the first place because of the immeasurable space, secondly because of the lack of materials, and finally because of the total lack of every notion of method and the chaotic character of the form of life.

If we proceed very objectively and take the time to study the essential causes of the beneficial factors for construction as a primary cultural activity in a small country, more or less reliant on its own forces (such as Holland, for example), we shall see that the factors which I touched upon above not only exist there, but that they are correlated. Holland controls its extent and therefore it experiences a healthy architectural development, in contrast to Russia, which will never control its extent and therefore will never achieve an extensive solution to its architectural problems. Germany controls its extent as well, although on a different scale from that in Holland or France, but because of that it is in a more favorable position to push architecture as a primary cultural activity to a very high level: for it has all the factors at its disposal which are necessary for the realization of the architectural tasks dictated by modern life.

It is extremely important for architecture to understand the significance of all this, for in the last instance it is not sufficient that occasionally a few well-proportioned modern houses are created here and there. In those, only very individual interests (of the architect) play a role, or, at most, group interests (those of the contractors and the inhabitants).

For the Russian architects the problem is much more complicated. Construction touches upon the life interests of the total population and, although it is necessary to electrify the country or to fertilize it, it is equally necessary to industrialize construction. But the management of Public Works will respond with a “No money.” Is there no money? When millions and millions of rubles are squandered, for instance on Soviet propaganda in Japan, why then would there be no money to procure dwellings for thousands of homeless wretches?

Ivan Leonidov, View of the diploma project model for the Lenin Institute and Library, Moscow, U.S.S.R. (now Russia) 1927

Would this not be the best and most effective propaganda for the idea of the Soviet regime? But instead of carrying out a decentralized industrial building method in the cities and in the countryside, the architects cluster around their favorite Moscow and squander their energy in making all kinds of utopian designs for Lenin institutes and a hundred other projects which will never be realized, and in case they would be, would gobble up senseless amounts of money, without being of any use to the community.

• • •

The architects of OSA [the Association of Modern Architects], who publish the very well-edited periodical Sovremennaia arkhitektura [Modern Architecture], set themselves the task to achieve a communist architecture based on a functional, elementary construction. After having informed themselves thoroughly about modern Western European architecture, the architects [Mikhail] Barshch, [Andrei] Burov, [Moisei] Ginzburg, [Ivan] Leonidov, [Aleksandr] Nikolskii, [Pavel] Novitskii, [Georgii] Orlov, [Aleksandr] Pasternak, [Nikolai] Sobolev, [Georgii] Vegman, A[leksandr] and V[iktor] Vesnin, [Vladimir] Vladimirov and others united in Moscow in a standing committee for the defense of modern architecture. In the bi-monthly periodical SA, appearing from 1926 on in 8,000 copies, organized propaganda is being made for the new European architecture, in particular for that in Germany, Holland, and France. In principle the elementary (so-called “cubist”) architecture is featured here, while the more decorative or classically oriented architecture is completely excluded. With respect to this constructive architecture, however, a selection process would be very desirable. Simultaneous propaganda in a principled periodical for really good constructions, based on function and materials, and for the very weak imitations thereof (such as, for instance, those by V[ictor] Bourgeois, [André] Lurçat, etc., the former directly copying modern architecture in the Netherlands, the latter imitating Le Corbusier) may lead not only to misunderstanding, but also to the encouragement of unoriginal and poor architecture.

tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-001

The architects do not appear to recognize the importance of a strict separation between purely organic and technically ingenious work on the one hand, and trivial copies on the other.

Everything which is straight or plastered white is not to be equated with the new architecture solely because of those characteristics. Neither should everything that happens to be built in our time, be classified as modern architecture. The latter is still insufficiently understood, in Russia as well. The modern international architecture movement is, for purely functional reasons, based on a conscious application of new construction methods, which are for technical reasons incompatible with earlier building methods. Accordingly, a compromise between the two is impossible and undesirable. Therefore, the mention of more than a single modern direction in architecture contradicts the international aspiration toward a radical innovation of building methods and the correct application of available materials (steel, concrete, plate glass, nickel, caoutchouc, rubber, etc.).

Clearly archaism and decorativism are beyond the scope of the presently popular direction in which architecture is developing internationally. However, a great deal which, because of incompetence and lack of technical insight, is considered to lie within the scope of modern architecture has very little to do with architectural development (in the direction of a new building style corresponding to contemporary living).

Moisei Ginzburg, Gosstrakh apartment building in Moscow (1926), early photograph

Looking somewhat more attentively at the Central State Insurance Building [Gosstrakh, by Moisei Ginzburg], we cannot say that it opens new technical perspectives or architectural forms. Yet this building, created in 1927, is among the most modern ones that were realized. It belongs to the so-called popular modern architecture, inspired by Western nations. The accessible roof terraces are derived from Le Corbusier. The latter, in his veneration of nature, even went to the point of building complete gardens into a project for an immeuble, as if every inhabitant would be inclined to spend his time in a damp, covered kind of garden, enclosed between two walls, and then in the end contract a bronchial ailment. One should also consider the consequences which these modern picturesque inclinations would inflict upon the materials in the long run. Well, in Russia the climate appears to allow people to spend their time on unprotected, open roof terraces, just as in France!

Neither are the attempts at creating a new type of workers’ dwelling to be called exactly successful. Consider, for instance, the standard type designed by A. Ol, in Leningrad, with its impossible tailpiece. Moisei Ginzburg’s design reminds us very strongly of the Hotel Relais Automobile by the Persian architect [Gabriel] Guévrékian. Although Nikolskii’s model has been most researched technically, it is also based on the old housing system of standardized single-family dwellings. Nevertheless, we can discern a gratifying progress towards constructive functionalism in the course of five years’ development of Soviet modern architecture. Although the first designs were extremely fantastic, and in this respect no less dangerous than, for instance, the artistic affectations of decorative architecture, the later designs created after 1926 are already more in touch with reality, and are therefore more capable of realization.

Georgii Krutikov, diploma portfolio for The Flying City (1928)Georgii Krutikov, diploma portfolio for The Flying City (1928)

OSA has formulated the building commissions in the broadest sense of the word clearly and intelligibly. In the long run, communist architecture can only be viable in this way. At first, architecture was viewed too much as an autonomous expression of art in Russia as well, but this viewpoint was quickly abandoned when the functionality of the commission had to be taken into account. Although the association of architects OSA does not constitute the extreme left wing of modern Russian architecture, nevertheless it is because of the thorough explanation in its publication SA that practical realization has begun.

In evaluating designs, models, and realized projects as shown in reproductions in modern periodicals such as SA, etc., one should keep in mind that the photographs may be tricked, and one should be aware of technical and architectural flaws which can easily be disguised by this technique. In France this kind of modern photography is called photogénique. It has already caused a great deal of confusion in modern architectural production.

tehne.com-1927-1-001 tehne.com-1927-1-053 tehne.com-1927-1-052 tehne.com-1927-1-051 tehne.com-1927-1-030 tehne.com-1927-1-029 tehne.com-1927-1-028 tehne.com-1927-1-027 tehne.com-1927-1-026 tehne.com-1927-1-025 tehne.com-1927-1-024 tehne.com-1927-1-023 tehne.com-1927-1-022 tehne.com-1927-1-021 tehne.com-1927-1-020 tehne.com-1927-1-019 tehne.com-1927-1-018 tehne.com-1927-1-017 tehne.com-1927-1-016 tehne.com-1927-1-015 tehne.com-1927-1-014 tehne.com-1927-1-013 tehne.com-1927-1-012 tehne.com-1927-1-011 tehne.com-1927-1-010 tehne.com-1927-1-009 tehne.com-1927-1-008 tehne.com-1927-1-007 tehne.com-1927-1-006 tehne.com-1927-1-005 tehne.com-1927-1-004 tehne.com-1927-1-003 tehne.com-1927-1-002 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0001 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0035 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0034 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0033 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0032 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0031 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0030 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0029 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0028 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0027 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0026 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0025 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0024 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0023 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0022 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0021 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0020 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0019 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0018 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0017 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0016 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0015 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0014 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0013 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0012 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0011 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0010 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0009 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0008 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0007 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0006 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0005 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0004 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0003 tehne.com-sa-1926-5-6-1400-0002 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-001 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-036 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-035 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-034 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-033 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-032 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-031 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-030 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-029 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-028 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-026 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-025 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-024 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-023 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-022 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-021 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-020 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-019 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-018 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-017 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-016 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-015 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-014 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-013 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-012 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-011 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-010 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-009 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-008 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-007 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-006 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-005 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-004 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-003 tehne.com-sa-1927-2-1400-002

Adorno’s Leninism

$
0
0

.
Lenin and Adorno are not often placed side by side, conceptually or historically. More often than not they are counterposed — the former was a revolutionary man of action, while the latter ruminated most of his life on a revolution that never came to pass. It therefore came as a surprise to many when it came to light that Adorno insisted on “a strictly Leninist manifesto” in 1956, during his recorded conversation with Horkheimer. Even Martin Jay, who long sought to distance Frankfurt School critical theory from Leninism, was forced to acknowledge this passing remark, though it was immediately downplayed as an uncharacteristic bit of exuberance (“a brief paroxysm of enthusiasm”). Other critics, such as Todd Cronan, held that Adorno regressed behind Marx in following Lenin, since being determines consciousness and not the other way around. Chris Cutrone, my old mentor/nemesis of Platypus fame, has already criticized this view, so I won’t reprise his comments here.

The majority of Adorno’s public pronouncements regarding Lenin were deprecatory, if appreciative, playing coy with his authority on questions of materialist epistemology. Brecht had wondered why Adorno would bother reexamining philosophers like Mach or Husserl, especially since Lenin had dealt with them so roughly in Materialism and Empiricriticism (1908). Adorno objected that Lenin’s critique of empiriocriticism remained purely transcendental — i.e. rejecting it on the basis of false premises rather than provisionally accepting these false premises and immanently working through them. “When Lenin, rather than go in for epistemology, opposed it in compulsively reiterated avowals of the noumenality of cognitive objects, he meant to demonstrate that subjective positivism is conspiring with the powers that be,” wrote Adorno. “His political requirements turned him against the goal of theoretical cognition. A transcendent argumentation disposes of things on the basis of its claim to power, and with disastrous results: the unpenetrated target of criticism remains undisturbed as it is, and not being hit at all, it can be resurrected at will in changed constellations of power.”

“[D]ialectics as critique implies the criticism of any hypostasization of the mind as the primary thing, the thing that underpins everything else,” he recalled in his 1966 Lectures on Negative Dialectics. “I remember how I once explained all this to Brecht when we were together in exile. Brecht reacted by saying that these matters had all been settled long since — and what he had in mind was the materialist dialectic — and that there was no point in harking back to a controversy that had been superseded by the unreal course of history. I am unable to agree with this. On the one hand, it seems to me that the book whose authority he relied on, Lenin’s book on empiriocriticism, in no way succeeds in delivering what it undertakes to perform, namely a philosophical critique of the hypostasization of the mind or of idealism. It remains a thoroughly dogmatic work which simply presents a specific thesis with a torrent of abuse and in endless variations, without at all attempting a fundamental explanation.”

Just going on these statements, Adorno would seem to be lukewarm toward Lenin at best. Yet Adorno’s references to Lenin made in private, repeatedly in his letters from the 1930s and then again in his taped conversation two decades later, paint a different picture. There are several likely reasons for this. Lars Quadfasel speculates that public mention of Lenin during the 1930s, particularly after the Nazi seizure of power, would have been extremely unwise unless one was heaping scorn upon the Bolshevik leader’s memory. Similarly, after World War II, it was illegal for anyone living in West Germany to belong to the communist party. Moreover, since Lenin’s successors had transformed his teachings, along with those of Marx, into an unmoving set of dogmas collectively referred to as “DiaMat,” it is understandable that Adorno would hesitate to invoke the great revolutionary.

Detlev Claussen’s 2003 biography of Adorno, One Last Genius, perhaps provides the richest picture of Lenin’s enduring influence on Adorno. Claussen writes:

It was [Adorno’s] collaboration with Horkheimer [during the 1930s] that enabled him to shed these intellectual infantile disorders. His letters are full of bizarre references to Lenin, as if he wanted to outdo the “orthodox Marxism” advocated in Lukács’s History and Class Consciousness. Adorno’s original politicization took place when he was still very young, evidently in the course of his readings with Kracauer. This supplied him with key terms that expanded his horizon beyond his artistic and aesthetic concerns. This habit of thinking in keywords recurs in the taped records of the 1950s, when he would refer to Lenin, in the middle of the cold war, at a time when the Communist Party was banned and even party members scarcely dared to mention his name. It was at this time that he proposed to Horkheimer that they should produce a reworked Communist Manifesto that would be “strictly Leninist.” Behind the closed doors of the Institute, Adorno’s aim in 1956 was not to go back to Marx, but to go beyond him. He told Horkheimer that “I always wanted to try to produce a theory that would be faithful to Marx, Engels and Lenin, while not lagging behind the achievements of the most advanced culture.” Paradoxically, summing up the course of his life to that point in 1956, Adorno mentions his road toward politicization. He had arrived at Lenin, he claimed, via music. Using one of his key ideas, the idea that all knowledge is socially mediated, Adorno once again confirmed the importance of Lenin: “Marx was too harmless; he probably imagined quite naïvely that human beings are basically the same in all essentials and will remain so. It would be a good idea, therefore, to deprive them of their second nature. He was not concerned with their subjectivity; he probably didn’t look into that too closely. The idea that human beings are the products of society down to their innermost core is an idea that he would have rejected as a milieu theory. Lenin was the first person to assert this.”

In reality it was only Lenin’s contemporary Freud who noticed people’s subjectivity. Horkheimer and Adorno’s original idea of writing something jointly, the original seed of Dialectic of Enlightenment, was concerned with a critique of the individual. It was the attitude toward psychoanalysis that revealed the split in the material which produced critical theory, on the one hand, and revisionist psychoanalysis, as pioneered by Erich Fromm, on the other. The directness of the political vocabulary that was retained until well into the fifties becomes clear from a letter of Adorno’s to Horkheimer dated 21 March 1936. Adorno complains that Fromm has placed him in the “paradoxical situation of having to defend Freud. He is both sentimental and false, a combination of social democracy and anarchism; above all, there is a painful absence of dialectical thinking. He takes far too simple a view of authority, without which, after all, neither Lenin’s vanguard nor his dictatorship is conceivable. I would urgently advise him to read Lenin.”

Below are two long articles, each titled “Adorno’s Leninism.” The first, by Cutrone, presents a number of parallels between Lenin, Trotsky, and Adorno, some passages being virtual paraphrases. It’s a bit quote-heavy, in that almost Benjaminian style that presents long blocks of quoted texts followed by brief commentary, but it’s quite good. After that, there’s an article by Quadfasel in German (“Adornos Leninismus”) where he touches on several of the matters discussed in this introduction, as well as ongoing textual controversies about the compatibility or incompatibility of Adornian theory with Leninist practice — again, mostly in German. Quadfasel’s article includes a rather long fragment by Adorno from 1935 titled “The Fulcrum,” which I’ve attempted to translate below. Claudia Dallek assisted in the translation:

To learn from Lenin: Shouldn’t that really mean more than taking over methods of illegal work that were appropriate for the police state of Prussia? Such methods are not appropriate for a dictatorship whose power to rule [Herrschgewalt] strikes with even greater precision (insofar as it is able to con people, not based on democracy, but on a population of willing servants, informants, and pimps). Instead of sacrificing our best workers in the distribution of flyers — which publish about revolutionary developments that are simultaneously hindered by the arrest of these very same agitators — it is preferable to study Lenin’s attitude toward the revolution of Kerensky [in February 1917]: his ability to discover and use the fulcrum [Hebelpunkt, leverage point] of society to lift the measureless weight of the state with minimal energy. The proletariat was too weak to take on tsarist state authority; only the bourgeoisie could do that, by hastily bringing in the harvest of its revolutionary century. But this late bourgeoisie was like the bourgeoisie of other countries, sworn to war and therefore unable to keep its mass basis [Massenbasis] in a subordinate state. It was numerically spread too thin to fill the sphere of power and too ideologically divided to shape it, so it had to yield to the push that was made in the name of peace. To deliberately intervene in the concatenation of all these was necessary on Lenin’s part. He could have never defeated the autocracy, but certainly [could defeat] the democracy of the Brusilov offensive [the government that took over following the disastrous “June advance” of 1916]. He was able to recognize this beforehand and managed to master this blind violence by planning for it, the way cunning defeats the monster in fairy tales. That’s what made the immortal dialectical moment of his act the starting point and the prototype of every genuine communist state and revolution. The fate of the German working class, maybe that of humankind, depends on finding such a point, if it’s still indeed possible to find. There is no other hope to avoid war than this. Those who prophesy communism as the certain end of war, and therefore let things take their course, should remember that nobody knows (let alone the generals) what productive forces and means of production will be left to begin establishing the world.

Another friend, Sebastian Vetter, tells me that Adorno’s student Helmut Dahmer is preparing an essay on the influence of Leon Trotsky on Walter Benjamin. Dahmer is a specialist in psychoanalysis and critical theory, who hasn’t had much of his work translated into English since the 1970s, so I’m hoping it comes out soon and is good enough to merit a wider, Anglophone readership.

Adorno in 1935

Adorno’s Leninism

Chris Cutrone
Platypus Review
April 21, 2010
.

.
Adorno’s political relevance

.
Theodor W. Adorno, who was born in 1903 and lived until 1969, has a continuing purchase on problems of politics on the Left by virtue of his critical engagement with two crucial periods in the history of the Left: the 1930s “Old” Left and the 1960s “New Left.” Adorno’s critical theory, spanning this historical interval of the mid-20th century, can help make sense of the problems of the combined and ramified legacy of both periods.

Adorno is the key thinker for understanding 20th century Marxism and its discontents. As T.J. Clark has put it (in “Should Benjamin Have Read Marx?,” 2003), Adorno “[spent a lifetime] building ever more elaborate conceptual trenches to outflank the Third International.” The period of Adorno’s life, coming of age in the 1920s, in the wake of the failed international anticapitalist revolution that had opened in Russia in 1917 and continued but was defeated in Germany, Hungary and Italy in 1919, and living through the darkest periods of fascism and war in the mid-20th century to the end of the 1960s, profoundly informed his critical theory. As he put it in the introduction to the last collection of his essays he edited for publication before he died, he sought to bring together “philosophical speculation and drastic experience.” Adorno reflected on his “drastic” historical experience through the immanent critique, the critique from within, of Marxism. Adorno thought Marxism had failed as an emancipatory politics but still demanded redemption, and that this could be achieved only on the basis of Marxism itself. Adorno’s critical theory was a Marxist critique of Marxism, and as such reveals key aspects of Marxism that had otherwise become buried, as a function of the degenerations Marxism suffered from the 1930s through the 1960s. Several of Adorno’s writings, from the 1930s-1940s and the 1960s, illustrate the abiding concerns of his critical theory throughout this period.

In the late 1920s, the director of the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research Max Horkheimer wrote an aphorism titled “The Little Man and the Philosophy of Freedom” that is an excellent conspectus on the politics of Marxism.

In socialism, freedom is to become a reality. But because the present system is called “free” and considered liberal, it is not terribly clear what this may mean. Yet anyone who keeps his eyes open and has a little money in his pocket actually has ample occasion to familiarize himself with this concept. He may, for example, ask an acquaintance for a job in his firm. That has nothing to do with philosophy. But his acquaintance knits his brow and says that that is objectively impossible. Business is bad, he says, and he’s even been obliged to let many employees go. The man should not be angry with him, for it is not within his power, his freedom doesn’t extend that far.

The businessman is subject to laws which neither he nor anyone else nor any power with such a mandate created with purpose and deliberation. They are laws which the big capitalists and perhaps he himself skillfully make use of but whose existence must be accepted as a fact. Boom, bust, inflation, wars and even the qualities of things and human beings the present society demands are a function of such laws, of the anonymous social reality, just as the rotation of the earth expresses the laws of dead nature. No single individual can do anything about them.

Bourgeois thought views this reality as superhuman. It fetishizes the social process. It speaks of fate and either calls it blind, or attempts a mystical interpretation. It deplores the meaninglessness of the whole, or submits to the inscrutability of God’s ways. But in actuality, all those phenomena which arc either experienced as accidental or given a mystical interpretation depend on men and the way they arrange their social existence. They can therefore also be changed. If men consciously took their life in society in hand and replaced the struggle of capitalist enterprises by a classless and planned economy, the effects the process of production has on human beings and their relationships could also be understood and regulated. What today appears as a fact of nature in the private and business dealings of individuals are the effects of social life as a whole.

They are human, not divine, products. Because these effects of life in society are present but not conscious, willed or controlled, and are the results of an equal number of individual wills that grasp neither their dependence nor their power, the limitation on individual freedom in our time is immeasurably greater than would be necessary, given the available means.

When the businessman whom his acquaintance asks for a job refuses because conditions don’t permit it. he thinks he is referring to something purely objective and totally autonomous — reality itself. Since everyone else, including the petitioner, feels the same because the reality they themselves created through their social activity appears as something alien by which they must abide, it follows that there are many agents but no conscious and therefore free subjects of social conditions. Men must submit to conditions they themselves constantly create as to something alien and overwhelmingly powerful.

Insight is not enough, of course, to change this state of affairs. For the error is not that people do not recognize the subject but that the subject does not exist. Everything therefore depends on creating the free subject that consciously shapes social life. And this subject is nothing other than the rationally organized socialist society which regulates its own existence. In the society as it now is, there are many individual subjects whose freedom is severely limited because they are unconscious of what they do, but there is no being that creates reality, no coherent ground. Religion and metaphysics claim that such a ground exists. In so doing, they try to keep men from creating it through their own efforts. Of course, the present lack of freedom does not apply equally to all. An element of freedom exists when the product is consonant with the interest of the producer. All those who work and even those who don’t, have a share in the creation of contemporary reality, but the degree of that consonance varies considerably. Those for whom it is high seem responsible for reality in a sense. They speak of “our” reality, as if they were royalty, and rightly so. For although they did not themselves create the world, one cannot but suspect that they would have made it exactly as it is. It suits them perfectly that the production and preservation of reality in our society proceed blindly. They have every reason to approve of the product of this blind process and therefore support all legends concerning its origin. But for the little man who is turned down when he asks for a job because objective conditions make it impossible, it is most important that their origin be brought to the light of day so that they do not continue being unfavorable to him. Not only his own lack of freedom but that of others as well spells his doom. His interest lies in the Marxist clarification of the concept of freedom. [Max Horkheimer, “The Little Man and the Philosophy of Freedom,” from Dawn and Decline]

The “Marxist clarification of the concept of freedom” that Horkheimer calls for is the usually neglected aspect of Marxism. Marxism is usually regarded as an ideology of material redistribution or “social justice,” championing the working class and other oppressed groups, where it should be seen as a philosophy of freedom.

There is a fundamentally different problem at stake in either regarding capitalism as a materially oppressive force, as a problem of exploitation, or as a problem of human freedom. The question of freedom raises the issue of possibilities for radical social-historical transformation, which was central to Adorno’s thought. Whereas by the 1930s, with the triumph of Stalinist and social-democratic reformist politics in the workers’ movement, on the defensive against fascism, Marxism had degenerated into an ideology merely affirming the interests of the working class, Marx himself had started out with a perspective on what he called the necessity of the working class’s own self-abolition (Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, 1843).

Marx inquired into the potential overcoming of historical conditions of possibility for labor as the justification for social existence, which is how he understood capitalist society. Marx’s point was to elucidate the possibilities for overcoming labor as a social form. But Marx thought that this could only happen in and through the working class’s own political activity. How was it possible that the working class would abolish itself?

.
Politics not prefigurative

.
Mahatma Gandhi said, “Be the change you want to see in the world.” This ethic of “prefiguration,” the attempt to personally embody the principles of an emancipated world, was the classic expression of the moral problem of politics in service of radical social change in the 20th century. During the mid-20th century Cold War between the “liberal-democratic” West led by the United States and the Soviet Union, otherwise known as the Union of Workers’ Councils Socialist Republics, the contrasting examples of Gandhi, leader of non-violent resistance to British colonialism in India, and Lenin, leader of the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and of the international Communist movement inspired by it, were widely used to pose two very different models for understanding the politics of emancipation. One was seen as ethical, remaining true to its intentions, while the other was not. Why would Adorno, like any Marxist, have chosen Lenin over Gandhi? Adorno’s understanding of capitalism, what constituted it and what allowed it to reproduce itself as a social form, informed what he thought would be necessary, in theory and practice, to actually overcome it, in freedom.

Adorno, as a Marxist critical theorist, followed the discussion by Leon Trotsky, who had been the 26 year-old leader of the Petersburg Soviet or Workers’ Council during the 1905 Revolution in Russia, of the “pre-requisites of socialism” in his 1906 pamphlet Results and Prospects, where he wrote about the problem of achieving what he called “socialist psychology,” as follows:

Marxism converted socialism into a science, but this does not prevent some “Marxists” from converting Marxism into a Utopia…

[M]any socialist ideologues (ideologues in the bad sense of the word — those who stand everything on its head) speak of preparing the proletariat for socialism in the sense of its being morally regenerated. The proletariat, and even “humanity” in general, must first of all cast out its old egoistical nature, and altruism must become predominant in social life, etc. As we are as yet far from such a state of affairs, and “human nature” changes very slowly, socialism is put off for several centuries. Such a point of view probably seems very realistic and evolutionary, and so forth, but as a matter of fact it is really nothing but shallow moralizing.

It is assumed that a socialist psychology must be developed before the coming of socialism, in other words that it is possible for the masses to acquire a socialist psychology under capitalism. One must not confuse here the conscious striving towards socialism with socialist psychology. The latter presupposes the absence of egotistical motives in economic life; whereas the striving towards socialism and the struggle for it arise from the class psychology of the proletariat. However many points of contact there may be between the class psychology of the proletariat and classless socialist psychology, nevertheless a deep chasm divides them.

The joint struggle against exploitation engenders splendid shoots of idealism, comradely solidarity and self-sacrifice, but at the same time the individual struggle for existence, the ever-yawning abyss of poverty, the differentiation in the ranks of the workers themselves, the pressure of the ignorant masses from below, and the corrupting influence of the bourgeois parties do not permit these splendid shoots to develop fully. For all that, in spite of his remaining philistinely egoistic, and without his exceeding in “human” worth the average representative of the bourgeois classes, the average worker knows from experience that his simplest requirements and natural desires can be satisfied only on the ruins of the capitalist system.

The idealists picture the distant future generation which shall have become worthy of socialism exactly as Christians picture the members of the first Christian communes.

Whatever the psychology of the first proselytes of Christianity may have been — we know from the Acts of the Apostles of cases of embezzlement of communal property — in any case, as it became more widespread, Christianity not only failed to regenerate the souls of all the people, but itself degenerated, became materialistic and bureaucratic; from the practice of fraternal teaching one of another it changed into papalism, from wandering beggary into monastic parasitism; in short, not only did Christianity fail to subject to itself the social conditions of the milieu in which it spread, but it was itself subjected by them. This did not result from the lack of ability or the greed of the fathers and teachers of Christianity, but as a consequence of the inexorable laws of the dependence of human psychology upon the conditions of social life and labour, and the fathers and teachers of Christianity showed this dependence in their own persons.

If socialism aimed at creating a new human nature within the limits of the old society it would be nothing more than a new edition of the moralistic utopias. Socialism does not aim at creating a socialist psychology as a prerequisite to socialism but at creating socialist conditions of life as a pre-requisite to socialist psychology. [Leon Trotsky, Results and Prospects (1906), in The Permanent Revolution & Results and Prospects 3rd edition (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1969), 82, 97-99.]

In this passage, Trotsky expressed a view common to the Marxism of that era, which Adorno summed up in a 1936 letter to Walter Benjamin as follows:

[The] proletariat…is itself a product of bourgeois society…[T]he actual consciousness of actual workers…[has] absolutely no advantage over the bourgeois except… interest in the revolution, but otherwise bear[s] all the marks of mutilation of the typical bourgeois character…[W]e maintain our solidarity with the proletariat instead of making of our own necessity a virtue of the proletariat, as we are always tempted to do — the proletariat which itself experiences the same necessity and needs us for knowledge as much as we need the proletariat to make the revolution…a true accounting of the relationship of the intellectuals to the working class. [Letter of March 18, 1936, in Adorno, et al., Aesthetics and Politics (London: Verso, 1980), 123-125.]

Adorno’s philosophical idea of the “non-identity” of social being and consciousness, of practice and theory, of means and ends, is related to this, what he called the priority or “preponderance” of the “object.” Society needs to be changed before consciousness.

His thought was preceded by Georg Lukács’s treatment of the problem of “reification,” or “reified consciousness.” Citing Lenin, Lukács wrote, on “The Standpoint of the Proletariat,” the third section of his 1923 essay “Reification and the Consciousness of the Proletariat,” that,

Reification is…the necessary, immediate reality of every person living in capitalist society. It can be overcome only by constant and constantly renewed efforts to disrupt the reified structure of existence by concretely relating to the concretely manifested contradictions of the total development, by becoming conscious of the immanent meanings of these contradictions for the total development. But it must be emphasized that…the structure can be disrupted only if the immanent contradictions of the process are made conscious. Only when the consciousness of the proletariat is able to point out the road along which the dialectics of history is objectively impelled, but which it cannot travel unaided, will the consciousness of the proletariat awaken to a consciousness of the process, and only then will the proletariat become the identical subject-object of history whose praxis will change reality. If the proletariat fails to take this step the contradiction will remain unresolved and will be reproduced by the dialectical mechanics of history at a higher level, in an altered form and with increased intensity. It is in this that the objective necessity of history consists. The deed of the proletariat can never be more than to take the next step in the process. Whether it is “decisive” or “episodic” depends on the concrete circumstances [of this on-going struggle.] [Lukács, History and Class Consciousness, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971), 197-198.]

Lukács thought that,

Lenin’s achievement is that he rediscovered this side of Marxism that points the way to an understanding of its practical core. His constantly reiterated warning to seize the “next link” in the chain with all one’s might, that link on which the fate of the totality depends in that one moment, his dismissal of all utopian demands, i.e. his “relativism” and his “Realpolitik:” all these things are nothing less than the practical realization of the young Marx’s [1845] Theses on Feuerbach. (Lukács, History and Class Consciousness, 221n60)

In his third “thesis” on Feuerbach, Marx wrote that,

The materialist doctrine that men are products of circumstances and upbringing, and that, therefore, changed men are products of other circumstances and changed upbringing, forgets that it is men who change circumstances and that it is essential to educate the educator himself. Hence, this doctrine necessarily arrives at dividing society into two parts, one of which is superior to society.

The coincidence of the changing of circumstances and of human activity can be conceived and rationally understood only as revolutionizing practice. [Robert C, Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader 2nd edition (New York: Norton, 1978), 144.]

So, what, for Adorno, counted as “revolutionary practice,” and what is the role of “critical theory,” and, hence, the role of Marxist “intellectuals,” in relation to this?

.
The politics of critical theory

.
In his 1936 letter to Benjamin, Adorno pointed out that,

[I]f [one] legitimately interpret[s] technical progress and alienation in a dialectical fashion, without doing the same in equal measure for the world of objectified subjectivity…then the political effect of this is to credit the proletariat directly with an achievement which, according to Lenin, it can only accomplish through the theory introduced by intellectuals as dialectical subjects…“Les extrèmes me touchent” [“The extremes touch me” (André Gide)]…but only if the dialectic of the lowest has the same value as the dialectic of the highest…Both bear the stigmata of capitalism, both contain elements of change…Both are torn halves of an integral freedom, to which, however, they do not add up. It would be romantic to sacrifice one to the other…[as] with that romantic anarchism which places blind trust in the spontaneous powers of the proletariat within the historical process — a proletariat which is itself a product of bourgeois society. [Theodor W. Adorno and Walter Benjamin, The Complete Correspondence 1928-1940, ed. Henri Lonitz, trans. Nicholas Walker (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 129-130.]

This conception of the dialectic of the “extremes” was developed by Adorno in two writings of the 1940s, “Reflections on Class Theory,” and “Imaginative Excesses.” In these writings, Adorno drew upon not only Marx and the best in the history of Marxist politics, but also the critical-theoretical digestion of this politics by Lukács.

In his 1920 essay on “Class Consciousness,” Lukács wrote that,

Only the consciousness of the proletariat can point to the way that leads out of the impasse of capitalism. As long as this consciousness is lacking, the crisis remains permanent, it goes back to its starting-point, repeats the cycle until after infinite sufferings and terrible detours the school of history completes the education of the proletariat and confers upon it the leadership of mankind. But the proletariat is not given any choice. As Marx says, it must become a class not only “as against capital” but also “for itself;” that is to say, the class struggle must be raised from the level of economic necessity to the level of conscious aim and effective class consciousness. The pacifists and humanitarians of the class struggle whose efforts tend whether they will or no to retard this lengthy, painful and crisis-ridden process would be horrified if they could but see what sufferings they inflict on the proletariat by extending this course of education. But the proletariat cannot abdicate its mission. The only question at issue is how much it has to suffer before it achieves ideological maturity, before it acquires a true understanding of its class situation and a true class consciousness.

Of course this uncertainty and lack of clarity are themselves the symptoms of the crisis in bourgeois society. As the product of capitalism the proletariat must necessarily be subject to the modes of existence of its creator. This mode of existence is inhumanity and reification. No doubt the very existence of the proletariat implies criticism and the negation of this form of life. But until the objective crisis of capitalism has matured and until the proletariat has achieved true class consciousness, and the ability to understand the crisis fully, it cannot go beyond the criticism of reification and so it is only negatively superior to its antagonist…Indeed, if it can do no more than negate some aspects of capitalism, if it cannot at least aspire to a critique of the whole, then it will not even achieve a negative superiority…

The reified consciousness must also remain hopelessly trapped in the two extremes of crude empiricism and abstract utopianism. In the one case, consciousness becomes either a completely passive observer moving in obedience to laws which it can never control. In the other it regards itself as a power which is able of its own — subjective — volition to master the essentially meaningless motion of objects. (Lukács, History and Class Consciousness, 76-77)

In “The Standpoint of the Proletariat,” Lukács elaborated further that,

[T]here arises what at first sight seems to be the paradoxical situation that this projected, mythological world [of capital] seems closer to consciousness than does the immediate reality. But the paradox dissolves as soon as we remind ourselves that we must abandon the standpoint of immediacy and solve the problem if immediate reality is to be mastered in truth. Whereas[,] mythology is simply the reproduction in imagination of the problem in its insolubility. Thus immediacy is merely reinstated on a higher level…

Of course, [the alternative of] “indeterminism” does not lead to a way out of the difficulty for the individual…[It is] nothing but the acquisition of that margin of “freedom” that the conflicting claims and irrationality of the reified laws can offer the individual in capitalist society. It ultimately turns into a mystique of intuition which leaves the fatalism of the external reified world even more intact than before[,] [despite having] rebelled in the name of “humanism” against the tyranny of the “law”…

Even worse, having failed to perceive that man in his negative immediacy was a moment in a dialectical process, such a philosophy, when consciously directed toward the restructuring of society, is forced to distort the social reality in order to discover the positive side, man as he exists, in one of its manifestations…In support of this we may cite as a typical illustration the well-known passage [from Marx’s great adversary, the German socialist Ferdinand Lassalle]: “There is no social way that leads out of this social situation. The vain efforts of things to behave like human beings can be seen in the English [labor] strikes whose melancholy outcome is familiar enough. The only way out for the workers is to be found in that sphere within which they can still be human beings…

[I]t is important to establish that the abstract and absolute separation[,] …the rigid division between man as thing, on the one hand, and man as man, on the other, is not without consequences…[T]his means that every path leading to a change in this reality is systematically blocked.

This disintegration of a dialectical, practical unity into an inorganic aggregate of the empirical and the utopian, a clinging to the “facts” (in their untranscended immediacy) and a faith in illusions[,] as alien to the past as to the present[,] is characteristic…

The danger to which the proletariat has been exposed since its appearance on the historical stage was that it might remain imprisoned in its immediacy together with the bourgeoisie. (Lukács, History and Class Consciousness, 194-196)

In “Reflections on Class Theory,” Adorno provided a striking re-interpretation of Marx and Engels’s Communist Manifesto as a theory of emancipation from history:

According to [Marxian] theory, history is the history of class struggles. But the concept of class is bound up with the [historical] emergence of the proletariat…By extending the concept of class to prehistory, theory denounces not just the bourgeois…[but] turns against prehistory itself…By exposing the historical necessity that had brought capitalism into being, [the critique of] political economy became the critique of history as a whole…All history is the history of class struggles because it was always the same thing, namely, prehistory…This means, however, that the dehumanization is also its opposite…Only when the victims completely assume the features of the ruling civilization will they be capable of wresting them from the dominant power. [Theodor W. Adorno, “Reflections on Class Theory” (1942), in Can One Live After Auschwitz? A Philosophical Reader, ed. Rolf Tiedemann (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003), 93-110.]

Adorno elaborated this further in the aphorism “Imaginative Excesses,” which was orphaned from the published version of Adorno’s book Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life (1944-1947). Adorno wrote that,

Those schooled in dialectical theory are reluctant to indulge in positive images of the proper society, of its members, even of those who would accomplish it…The leap into the future, clean over the conditions of the present, lands in the past. In other words: ends and means cannot be formulated in isolation from each other. Dialectics will have no truck with the maxim that the former justify the latter, no matter how close it seems to come to the doctrine of the ruse of reason or, for that matter, the subordination of individual spontaneity to party discipline. The belief that the blind play of means could be summarily displaced by the sovereignty of rational ends was bourgeois utopianism. It is the antithesis of means and ends itself that should be criticized. Both are reified in bourgeois thinking…[Their] petrified antithesis holds good for the world that produced it, but not for the effort to change it. Solidarity can call on us to subordinate not only individual interests but even our better insight…Hence the precariousness of any statement about those on whom the transformation depends…The dissident wholly governed by the end is today in any case so thoroughly despised by friend and foe as an “idealist” and daydreamer…Certainly, however, no more faith can be placed in those equated with the means; the subjectless beings whom historical wrong has robbed of the strength to right it, adapted to technology and unemployment, conforming and squalid, hard to distinguish from the wind-jackets of fascism: their actual state disclaims the idea that puts its trust in them. Both types are theater masks of class society projected on to the night-sky of the future…on one hand the abstract rigorist, helplessly striving to realize chimeras, and on the other the subhuman creature who as dishonor’s progeny shall never be allowed to avert it.

What the rescuers would be like cannot be prophesied without obscuring their image with falsehood…What can be perceived, however, is what they will not be like: neither personalities nor bundles of reflexes, but least of all a synthesis of the two, hardboiled realists with a sense of higher things. When the constitution of human beings has grown adapted to social antagonisms heightened to the extreme, the humane constitution sufficient to hold antagonism in check will be mediated by the extremes, not an average mingling of the two. The bearers of technical progress, now still mechanized mechanics, will, in evolving their special abilities, reach the point already indicated by technology where specialization grows superfluous. Once their consciousness has been converted into pure means without any qualification, it may cease to be a means and breach, with its attachment to particular objects, the last heteronomous barrier; its last entrapment in the existing state, the last fetishism of the status quo, including that of its own self, which is dissolved in its radical implementation as an instrument. Drawing breath at last, it may grow aware of the incongruence between its rational development and the irrationality of its ends, and act accordingly.

At the same time, however, the producers are more than ever thrown back on theory, to which the idea of a just condition evolves in their own medium, self-consistent thought, by virtue of insistent self-criticism. The class division of society is also maintained by those who oppose class society: following the schematic division of physical and mental labor, they split themselves up into workers and intellectuals. This division cripples the practice which is called for. It cannot be arbitrarily set aside. But while those professionally concerned with things of the mind are themselves turned more and more into technicians, the growing opacity of capitalist mass society makes an association between intellectuals who still are such, with workers who still know themselves to be such, more timely than thirty years ago [at the time of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution]…Today, when the concept of the proletariat, unshaken in its economic essence, is so occluded by technology that in the greatest industrial country [the United States of America] there can be no question of proletarian class-consciousness, the role of intellectuals would no longer be to alert the torpid to their most obvious interests, but to strip the veil from the eyes of the wise-guys, the illusion that capitalism, which makes them its temporary beneficiaries, is based on anything other than their exploitation and oppression. The deluded workers are directly dependent on those who can still just see and tell of their delusion. Their hatred of intellectuals has changed accordingly. It has aligned itself to the prevailing commonsense views. The masses no longer mistrust intellectuals because they betray the revolution, but because they might want it, and thereby reveal how great is their own need of intellectuals. Only if the extremes come together will humanity survive. [Theodor W. Adorno, “Messages in a Bottle,” New Left Review I/200 (July-August 1993), 12-14.]

.
The problem of means and ends

.
A principal trope Stalinophobic Cold War liberalism in the 20th century was the idea that Bolshevism thought that the “ends justify the means,” in some Machiavellian manner, that Leninists were willing to do anything to achieve socialism. This made a mockery not only of the realties of socialist politics up to that time, but also of the self-conscious relation within Marxism itself between theory and practice, what came to be known as “alienation.” Instead, Marxism became an example for the liberal caveat, supposedly according to Kant, that something “may be true in theory but not in practice.” Marxist politics had historically succumbed to the theory-practice problem, but that does not mean that Marxists had been unaware of this problem, nor that Marxist theory had not developed a self-understanding of what it means to inhabit and work through this problem.

As Adorno put it in his 1966 book Negative Dialectics,

The liquidation of theory by dogmatization and thought taboos contributed to the bad practice…The interrelation of both moments [of theory and practice] is not settled once and for all but fluctuates historically…Those who chide theory [for being] anachronistic obey the topos of dismissing, as obsolete, what remains painful [because it was] thwarted…The fact that history has rolled over certain positions will be respected as a verdict on their truth content only by those who agree with Schiller that “world history is the world tribunal.” What has been cast aside but not absorbed theoretically will often yield its truth content only later. It festers as a sore on the prevailing health; this will lead back to it in changed situations. [Adorno, Negative Dialectics (1966), trans. E. B. Ashton (Continuum: New York, 1983), 143-144.]

What this meant for Adorno is that past emancipatory politics could not be superseded or rendered irrelevant the degree to which they remained unfulfilled. A task could be forgotten but it would continue to task the present. This means an inevitable return to it. The most broad-gauged question raised by this approach is the degree to which we may still live under capital in the way Marx understood it. If Marx’s work is still able to provoke critical recognition of our present realities, then we are tasked to grasp the ways it continues to do so. This is not merely a matter of theoretical “analysis,” however, but also raises issues of practical politics. This means inquiring into the ways Marx understood the relation of theory and practice, most especially his own. Adorno thought that this was not a matter of simply emulating Marx’s political practice or theoretical perspectives, but rather trying to grasp the relation of theory and practice under changed conditions.

This articulated non-identity, antagonism and even contradiction of theory and practice, observable in the history of Marxism most of all, was not taken to be defeating for Adorno, but was in fact precisely where Marxism pointed acutely to the problem of freedom in capital, and how it might be possible to transform and transcend it. Adorno put it this way, in a late, posthumously published essay from 1969, “Marginalia to Theory and Praxis,” inspired by his conflicts with both student activists and his old friend and colleague Herbert Marcuse, who he thought had regressed to a Romantic rejection of capital:

If, to make an exception for once, one risks what is called a grand perspective, beyond the historical differences in which the concepts of theory and praxis have their life, one discovers the infinitely progressive aspect of the separation of theory and praxis, which was deplored by the Romantics and denounced by the Socialists in their wake — except for the mature Marx. [Adorno, “Marginalia to Theory and Praxis” (1969), in Critical Models, trans. Henry W. Pickford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 266.]

As Adorno put it in a [May 5, 1969] letter to Marcuse,

[T]here are moments in which theory is pushed on further by practice. But such a situation neither exists objectively today, nor does the barren and brutal practicism that confronts us here have the slightest thing to do with theory anyhow. [Adorno and Marcuse, “Correspondence on the German Student Movement,” trans. Esther Leslie, New Left Review I/233, Jan.-Feb. 1999, 127.]

In his final published essay, “Resignation” (1969), which became a kind of testament, Adorno pointed out that,

Even political undertakings can sink into pseudo-activities, into theater. It is no coincidence that the ideals of immediate action, even the propaganda of the [deed], have been resurrected after the willing integration of formerly progressive organizations that now in all countries of the earth are developing the characteristic traits of what they once opposed. Yet this does not invalidate the [Marxist] critique of anarchism. Its return is that of a ghost. The impatience with [Marxian] theory that manifests itself with its return does not advance thought beyond itself. By forgetting thought, the impatience falls back below it. [Adorno, “Resignation,” (1969), in Critical Models, trans. Henry W. Pickford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 292.]

This is almost a direct paraphrase of Lenin, who wrote in his 1920 pamphlet “Left-Wing” Communism: An Infantile Disorder that,

[D]riven to frenzy by the horrors of capitalism…anarchism is characteristic of all capitalist countries. The instability of such revolutionism, its barrenness, and its tendency to turn rapidly into submission, apathy, phantasms, and even a frenzied infatuation with one bourgeois fad or another — all this is common knowledge…

Anarchism was not infrequently a kind of penalty for the opportunist sins of the working-class movement. The two monstrosities complemented each other. [Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Lenin Anthology (New York: Norton, 1975), 559-560.]

Adorno paralleled Lenin’s discussion of the “phantasms” of non-Marxian socialism, and defense of a Marxist approach, stating that, “Thought, enlightenment conscious of itself, threatens to disenchant the pseudo-reality within which actionism moves.” Immediately prior to Adorno’s comment on anarchism, he discussed the antinomy of spontaneity and organization, as follows,

Pseudo-activity is generally the attempt to rescue enclaves of immediacy in the midst of a thoroughly mediated and rigidified society. Such attempts are rationalized by saying that the small change is one step in the long path toward the transformation of the whole. The disastrous model of pseudo-activity is the “do-it-yourself.”…The do-it-yourself approach in politics is not completely of the same caliber [as the quasi-rational purpose of inspiring in the unfree individuals, paralyzed in their spontaneity, the assurance that everything depends on them]. The society that impenetrably confronts people is nonetheless these very people. The trust in the limited action of small groups recalls the spontaneity that withers beneath the encrusted totality and without which this totality cannot become something different. The administered world has the tendency to strangle all spontaneity, or at least to channel it into pseudo-activities. At least this does not function as smoothly as the agents of the administered world would hope. However, spontaneity should not be absolutized, just as little as it should be split off from the objective situation or idolized the way the administered world itself is. (Adorno, “Resignation,” Critical Models, 291-292)

Adorno’s poignant defense of Marxism was expressed most pithily in the final lines with which his “Marginalia to Theory and Praxis” concludes, that,

Marx by no means surrendered himself to praxis. Praxis is a source of power for theory but cannot be prescribed by it. It appears in theory merely, and indeed necessarily, as a blind spot, as an obsession with what it being criticized…This admixture of delusion, however, warns of the excesses in which it incessantly grows. (Adorno, “Marginalia to Theory and Praxis,” Critical Models, 278)

Marxism is both true and untrue; the question is how one recognizes its truth and untruth, and the necessity — the inevitability — of its being both.

Adorno acknowledged his indebtedness to the best of historical Marxism when he wrote that,

The theorist who intervenes in practical controversies nowadays discovers on a regular basis and to his shame that whatever ideas he might contribute were expressed long ago — and usually better the first time around. [Adorno, “Sexual Taboos and the Law Today” (1963), in Critical Models, trans. Henry W. Pickford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 71.]

Sentimental und falsch unmittelbar, eine Mischung von Sozialdemokratie und Anarchismus«, urteilte Theodor W. Adorno in einem Brief an Max Horkheimer 1936 über den Institutskollegen Erich Fromm: »Er macht es sich mit dem Begriff der Autorität zu leicht, ohne den ja schließlich weder Lenins Avantgarde noch die Diktatur zu denken ist. Ich würde ihm dringend raten, Lenin zu lesen.« Drei Tage zuvor hatte er bereits Walter Benjamin wissen lassen, dass dessen Aufsatz »Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit« Sätze enthalte, »die zu dem tiefsten und mächtigsten an politischer Theorie zählen, das mir begegnet ist, seit ich Staat und Revolution las«. Und noch 1956, in einem in vielem äußerst bemerkenswerten Gespräch mit Horkheimer über »Theorie und Praxis«, spielte er mit dem Gedanken eines neuen, »streng leninistischen Manifests«.

Derart emphatische Bezugnahmen auf den russischen Revolutionär, wenn auch nur in nicht für die Öffentlichkeit gedachten Äußerungen, scheinen auf den ersten Blick irritierend; zumal, wenn man sich die schroffe Abgrenzung vor Augen hält, die Horkheimer und Adorno später gegenüber den »Fronvögten im Osten« walten ließen. Naheliegend daher, Adornos Lenin-Lob so zu verstehen, wie es Micha Brumlik jüngst in der Taz tat: als entwicklungsgeschichtliche Verirrung, die den »systematischen Gehalt« des Adornoschen Werkes so wenig berühre wie die Tatsache, dass Adorno in Hinblick auf Jazz von der »Negerrasse« geschrieben habe.(1) Wer freilich nicht zu denen gehört, die jede Abweichung vom demokratischen Common Sense für Spleen halten, wird es sich so einfach nicht machen können, sondern fragen müssen, was genau Adorno an Lenin fand. Den deutlichsten Hinweis liefert ein 1935 verfasstes Fragment, das unter dem Titel »Der Hebelpunkt« in der Bildmonographie zum 100. Geburtstag publiziert wurde. Es sei, da kaum bekannt, hier ausführlich zitiert:

Von Lenin lernen: sollte das wirklich nicht mehr heißen als Methoden der illegalen Arbeit übernehmen, die dem russischen Polizeistaat angemessen waren, nicht aber einer Diktatur, deren Herrschgewalt um so genauer zuschlüge, je besser sie die Massen zu täuschen vermag, gestützt zwar nicht auf Demokratie, aber auf ein Volk williger Knechte, Denunzianten und Zutreiber? Man sollte lieber, anstatt die besten Arbeiter der Verteilung von Flugzetteln zu opfern, in denen die gleichen revolutionären Fortschritte zu lesen sind, die durch die Festnahme der Agitatoren sogleich verhindert werden — man sollte lieber Lenins Verhalten zur Kerenski-Revolution studieren: seine Fähigkeit, den gesellschaftlichen Hebelpunkt zu entdecken und zu nutzen: mit minimaler Kraft die unermessliche Last des Staates zu heben. Denn mit der zaristischen Staatsgewalt es aufzunehmen, war das Proletariat zu schwach; das vermochte bloß das Bürgertum, indem es hastig die Ernte seines revolutionären Jahrhunderts einbrachte. Aber dies verspätete Bürgertum war wie die Bürger der anderen Länder notwendig dem Krieg verschworen und konnte darum im unterliegenden Staat die Massenbasis nicht bewahren; war dann numerisch zu dünn, um den Raum der Herrschaft auszufüllen, und ideologisch zu gespalten, um ihn zu gestalten — so musste es dem Stoß weichen, der im Namen des Friedens geschah. In die Verkettung all dieser Muss willentlich einzugreifen war Lenins Teil. Nie hätte er die Autokratie schlagen können, wohl aber die Demokratie der Brussilow-Offensive; dass er das vorweg erkannte und durch Planung die blinde Gewalt zu meistern vermochte wie List im Märchen das Ungetüm, das machte den unvergänglichen dialektischen Augenblick seiner Tat aus, Anfang und Urbild jeder echten kommunistischen von Staat und Revolution. — Das Schicksal der deutschen Arbeiterklasse, vielleicht das der Menschheit, wird davon abhängen, ob sie einen solchen Punkt zu finden vermag, ja ob er nur noch zu finden ist: im faszistischen System: es gibt keine andere Hoffnung, dass der Krieg vermieden werde, als diese. Die aber als sicheres Ende des Krieges den Kommunismus prophezeien und darum den Dingen ihren Lauf lassen, sollten wohl bedenken, dass keiner weiß, und am letzten die Generale, was an Produktionskräften und Produktionsmitteln der Krieg dann übrig wird lassen, die danach beginnen, die Welt einzurichten.

.
Der dialektische Augenblick

.
Dass Adornos Lenin-Lektüre in die ersten Jahre des Nationalsozialismus fällt, ist, wie die Notiz zeigt, alles andere als ein Zufall. Er holt damit, in einer Situation äußerster Bedrängung, nach, was für die meisten anderen Institutsmitglieder am Beginn ihrer theoretischen Laufbahn stand: die Erfahrung der russischen Oktober- und der gescheiterten deutschen Novemberrevolution. Das Institut für Sozialforschung selbst war schließlich einmal ursprünglich als Think Tank der KPD geplant gewesen, und nur der Borniertheit der Parteikommunisten ist es zu verdanken, dass dessen Mitarbeiter begannen, unabhängige Wege zu gehen. Anders als etwa Marcuse aber, der 1918 in den Reinickendorfer Arbeiter- und Soldatenrat gewählt worden war, oder Löwenthal, der noch im hohen Alter verkündete, er habe stets zur Sowjetunion gehalten, kam Adorno nicht über die Politik, sondern über die Kunst zur Marxschen Theorie — und das hieß in erster Linie: zu Lukacs’ »Geschichte und Klassenbewusstsein«. Wenn er in den zwanziger Jahren Briefe mit »Es lebe die rote Internationale« unterzeichnete, dann mit einer gehörigen Portion Koketterie. Unter Hitler musste daraus, aus purem Selbsterhaltungsinteresse, Ernst werden.

Nicht zuletzt die Tatsache, dass Adorno, nach eigenen Angaben, der Entschluss zur Emigration unendlich schwer gefallen ist, motivierte die Hinwendung zur Revolutionstheorie. 1934 schrieb er an Löwenthal, er sehe die Möglichkeit, dass es in Deutschland zur Revolution komme, »für das nächste halbe Jahr größer an als seit 15 Jahren«; weshalb er zuversichtlich sei, dass »wir bald in Deutschland zu tun hätten«. Man kann sich darüber als Wunschdenken mokieren; aber ohne den Wunsch, aus dem es sich speist, verkümmert das Denken bekanntlich selbst. Kritik bedarf eines Moments in der Wirklichkeit, das im Grau in Grau nicht aufgeht; eines materiellen Korrelats, das ihr, indem es sie in der Welt verankert, erst die Kraft gibt, sich über diese zu erheben. Genau darauf zielte bei Adorno — erst recht, als er sich von der Hoffnung auf die unmittelbar bevorstehende Revolution verabschiedet hatte — die Lenin-Lektüre.

Horkheimer sollte dieses Motiv später einmal kurz und bündig auf den Punkt bringen: Die Partei sei der Garant dafür gewesen, dass niemand auf den Gedanken verfallen sei, die Kritische Theorie meine es doch gar nicht so böse; dass die Kritik also mehr und anderes sei als Spökenkiekerei. Wer vollkommen ohnmächtig ist, hat nichts zu sagen. (2) Was Adorno als Lenins »unvergänglichen dialektischen Augenblick« preist, ist darum genau dessen Fähigkeit, durch Praxis den Gang der Geschichte theoretisch lesbar gemacht zu haben — das heißt, eine Perspektive zu schaffen, aus der heraus ihr naturwüchsiges Fortschreiten erst Sinn ergibt. Weil dieser sich nicht von selbst versteht; weil Geschichte, als menschliche Vorgeschichte, kein vorgegebenes Ziel kennt, ist der Sprung aus ihr heraus auch nicht beliebig oft ansetzbar. Ihre Verwirklichung bleibt an den spezifischen Augenblick gebunden, den Kairos; wird er versäumt, entfaltet der Fortschritt sich nicht als einer zum Besseren, sondern als Katastrophe. Weniges an Lenins Schriften ist beeindruckender als die Briefe und Proklamationen, mit denen er seine zögernde Partei im Herbst 1917 auf den Sturz der Kerenski-Regierung einschwört und ihr dabei, wieder und wieder auf die einmalige historische Konstellation verweisend, das Wort von der »Kunst des Aufstands« geradezu einhämmert. Denn als Kunstwerk ist die Revolution, wie jedes Werk der Kunst, aus keiner Bedienungsanleitung ableitbar, sondern schafft erst das Gesetz, dem sie unterliegt.

Bekanntlich hatten nicht alle Kritischen Theoretiker mit ihrer Lenin-Rezeption Glück; auf den Traditionalismus, der Horkheimers und Pollocks — nicht zuletzt auf Lenins »Imperia­lis­mus«-Schrift fußende — Konzeption des Monopolkapitalismus durchzieht, hat Moishe Postone eindringlich hingewiesen. Adorno aber demonstriert, dass es neben vielen schlechten auch gute Gründe gab, dessen Schriften aufmerksam zu lesen. Die Schlusswendungen im Aphorismus »Hebelpunkt« machen deutlich, worauf Adorno vor allem ansprach: auf die prägende Erfahrung von 1914, das Versagen der internationalen Arbeiterbewegung. Sie machte für die, die es, wie die Bolschewiki, mit dem revolutionären Vaterlandsverrat weiterhin ernst meinten, den Bruch mit dem sozialdemokratischen Konformismus, mit dem Gottvertrauen in den unaufhaltsamen Erfolg der eigenen Sache, unumgänglich. Michael Koltan hat in seinem schönen Aufsatz »Lenin überwindet eine Depression« (Bahamas 22/1997) nachgezeichnet, wie sich Lenin, nach Ausbruch des Ersten Weltkriegs politisch fast vollständig isoliert, mit aller Energie statt in die Agitation in ein intensives Studium Hegels stürzte — mit dem Ziel, gegen den fast völlig verflachten Marxismus der II. Internationale die Kategorie des Widerspruchs wieder ins Zentrum zu rücken. (3) Gegen den sozialdemokratischen Evolutionismus, der — ob im Vertrauen auf den finalen »Großen Kladderadatsch« (Bebel) oder in der Erwartung, mittels parlamentarischer Mehrheiten in den Sozialismus hineinzuwachsen — den endlichen Sieg des Proletariats als Ergebnis eines gleichsam naturgesetzlichenen Prozesses verstand, beharrte Lenin darauf, dass die Revolution nicht organisch heranreife, sondern künstlich geschaffen werden müsse.

Ausgerechnet die daran ansetzende Konzeption der Kaderpartei, in »Was tun?« erstmals verbindlich formuliert, bezeichnet den Springpunkt von Adornos Lenin-Rezeption. Ausgangspunkt dabei ist Lenins Credo, die Arbeiterklasse bringe aus sich heraus nur ein trade-unionistisches Bewusstsein hervor, weshalb es einer externen Instanz bedürfe, das Klassenbewusstsein ins Proletariat zu tragen: der Avantgardepartei, die als kollektiver Theoretiker die naturwüchsigen Deformationen überwindet und das Bewusstsein der Totalität organisiert. Was sich in »Der Hebelpunkt« und anderen Texten der dreißiger Jahre nur angedeutet findet, wird am deutlichsten in der eingangs zitierten Diskussion formuliert, die Adorno 1956 mit Horkheimer über »Theorie und Praxis« führte. »Marx«, sagt Adorno hier, »war noch zu harmlos, er hat sich wahrscheinlich naiv vorgestellt, dass die Menschen im Grunde wesentlich identisch sind und bleiben. Dass es dann gut wird, wenn man nur die schlechte zweite Natur von ihnen nimmt. Er hat sich nicht um die Subjektivität gekümmert, er wollte das nicht so genau wissen. Dass die Menschen bis ins Innerste Produkte der Gesellschaft sind, würde er als eine Milieutheorie abgelehnt haben. Das hat erst Lenin zum ersten Mal ausgesprochen.«

Der Witz daran ist freilich, dass Lenin genau das, was Adorno ihm hier als wesentliche Einsicht zuschreibt, nirgends je so begründet hätte (während im Gegenzug Marx sehr wohl, und nachdrücklich, die Deprivationen, die die Arbeiter unterm Kapital erleiden, betonte — schon der kategorische Imperativ, alle Verhältnisse umzustürzen, spricht von dem Menschen nicht bloß als »geknechtetem«, sondern eben auch »verächtlichem« Wesen). Die Beschränktheit des proletarischen Klassenbewusstseins wird schlicht vorausgesetzt; wenn überhaupt, dann finden sich wenig mehr als beiläufige Bemerkungen über die Übermacht der bürgerlichen Presse, die Bedrückung der Massen durch die Ausbeutung und die Korruption der Arbeiterparteien. Woher die Avantgardepartei ihr privilegiertes Wissen bezieht, stellt sich Lenin gar nicht erst als Problem: Es stammt schlichtweg aus der Lektüre der Klassiker, und Aufgabe ihrer Nachfolger ist es in erster Linie, deren durch sozialdemokratische Machenschaften unterdrückten und korrumpierten Lehren endlich wieder, wie in Lenins »Staat und Revolution« geschehen, unverfälscht darzustellen.

Das lässt, aus materialistischer Sicht, selbstverständlich einiges zu wünschen übrig. Und dennoch bot Lenins Wendung gegen die praktizistische Handwerkelei, die ausdrückliche Betonung der Theorie, Adorno eine einmalige Handhabe, die eigene Rolle als Intellektueller revolutionstheoretisch zu legitimieren. Nun fällt es nicht besonders schwer, Einwände gegen Theorie und Praxis der Bolschewiki zu finden, und man darf annehmen, dass es auch Adorno nicht schwer gefallen sein dürfte. Umso unverständlicher für viele seiner heutigen Anhänger, dass er sich nie auf die Seite der linksradikalen Kritiker Lenins geschlagen hat, sondern sich, ganz im Gegenteil, stets dezidiert von den »ultralinken Intellektuellen anarchistischer Herkunft« und deren »Fetischisierung« des Proletariats abgrenzte.

Hendrik Wallat etwa hat in »Staat oder Revolution« und in seinem Beitrag zum Sammelband »Nie wieder Kommunismus?« verdienstvoll jene halb bis ganz vergessenen Strömungen wieder ins Bewusstsein gerückt, die — ob als Rätekommunisten, Anarchosyndikalisten oder linke Sozialrevolutionäre — nicht erst Stalins Schauprozesse bedurften, um den autoritären Gehalt des bolschewistischen Revolutionsmodells zu denunzieren. Nur zeigt sich bei der Rekonstruktion immer wieder auch, wie abstrakt die Kritik im einzelnen bleibt. Weil das prinzipielle Versagen der Bolschewiki immer schon feststeht, müssen die jeweiligen Maßnahmen gar nicht genauer untersucht werden, mit denen sie der fast unüberwindbaren Schwierigkeiten, denen sich die Revolution gegenübersah, Herr zu werden versuchten. (4) So hellsichtig die linken Kritiker der Oktoberrevolution bisweilen voraussahen, wo die bolschewistische »Zangengeburt« (Rosa Luxemburg) enden würde, so hilflos standen sie ihr theoretisch gegenüber. Beispielhaft etwa die Debatte, die das Protokoll des Dritten Weltkongresses der Kommunistischen Internationalen verzeichnet. Auf die Ausführungen Lenins zur Einführung der Neuen Ökonomischen Politik (eine Konsequenz aus der Erkenntnis, dass die Weltrevolution vorerst ausgesetzt war) reagierten Vertreter der KAPD und der russischen »Arbeiteropposition« mit vorsichtigen Einwänden, die sich, rückblickend betrachtet, als vollständig begründet erweisen sollten: Es drohe eine neue bürokratische Herrschaft, und der Handel mit den kapitalistischen Staaten könne leicht zu einer Situation führen, in der die Interessen der Sowjetunion und die der Weltrevolution miteinander in Konflikt geraten. Was aber die Kritiker als Remedur anzubieten hatten, beschränkte sich auf die Beschwörung, die »schöpferische Kraft« der Arbeiter, so Alexandra Kollontai, sei noch nicht »bis zu Ende ausgenutzt« worden. Worauf Trotzki maliziös, aber vollkommen zu Recht, entgegnete, ein solche »Ausnutzung« laufe auf genau jene terroristische Disziplinierung und Zentralisierung hinaus, die doch üblicherweise ihm selbst zugeschrieben werde. (5)

.
Benjamins Kinderkrankheiten

.
Das »blinde Vertrauen auf die Selbstmächtigkeit des Proletariats«, das Linksradikale sich ans Revers heften, bedeutet für Adorno eben nichts als das blinde Vertrauen auf die Verhältnisse, die ein Proletariat überhaupt erst hervorbringen. Genau diesen Vorwurf erhebt er auch in der brieflichen Debatte mit Walter Benjamin über dessen Aufsatz »Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit«. Auf keinen anderen Text Benjamins hat Adorno derart allergisch reagiert. Benjamin, so schrieb er Horkheimer über dessen Abgesang auf das autonome Kunstwerk, schütte »das Kind mit dem Bade aus, um dann die leere Badewanne anzubeten«, und noch Jahrzehnte später, in der »Ästhetischen Theorie«, klagt er über die »penetrante Beliebtheit« ausgerechnet jenes Aufsatzes. Gegenüber dem Autor selbst äußerte er sich konzilianter, freilich in der Hauptsache kaum weniger entschieden. Unter Berufung auf Lenins Autorität verwandelt sich das anfängliche Lob schnell in ein beißendes Verdikt: Mit seiner Apologie der industriell produzierten Massenkunst wandele Benjamin »an der Grenze zum Anarchismus«.

In dieser Absage an Benjamins »Brechtische« Kinderkrankheiten findet Adornos Lenin-Rezeption ihren wohl deutlichsten Widerhall. Mit Recht konnte Adorno davon ausgehen, dass es in der Auseinandersetzung um weit mehr als Fragen der Kunst ging; darum nämlich, mit Mao zu sprechen, »woher die richtigen Ideen der Menschen kommen«. Benjamin behauptet, orthodox marxistisch, aber das äußerst eigenwillig: aus der Steigerung der Produktivkräfte; Adorno antwortet ihm, ganz leninistisch, aber ebenso eigenwillig: aus der theoretischen Arbeit — genauer gesagt: aus der philosophischen und künstlerischen Durchdringung der Widersprüche des geistigen Überbaus. (6)

Beiden Kontrahenten geht es, konfrontiert mit der ultimativen politischen Katastrophe, um die Frage, wie der Lauf der Dinge doch noch umgewendet werden kann; und darum steckt der Teufel im Detail. Wer Adornos Verteidigung der intellektuellen Avantgarde ganz nachvollziehen können will, muss daher zunächst die von Benjamin entworfene Alternative kennen. Sie zusammenzufassen, ist freilich, wie stets bei diesem Autor, nicht ganz einfach — schon allein deswegen, weil er selbst den Text nie in eine ihn befriedigende Fassung hat bringen können, sondern ihn bis zu seinem Tod immer wieder neu aufnahm. (7) Wollte man aber versuchen, den Inhalt auf einen Nenner zu bringen, so wäre es der der Probe aufs Exempel: ob jene gesellschaftlichen Triebkräfte, die in der Politik in die Barbarei führen, sich in der Sphäre der Kunst befreiend entbinden ließen; ob also, wie es für Benjamin stets zu den Funktionen der Kunst gehörte, jenen gesellschaftlichen Tendenzen, »deren Realisierung an den Menschen selber zerstörend wäre, in der Bilderwelt zu ihrem Recht zu verhelfen« sei.

Im Mittelpunkt steht dabei das konstitutive Verhältnis von Technik und Massen. Die Technisierung der Reproduktion zielt stets, um rentabel zu sein, auf die Massennachfrage und bringt, wovon deren Mitglieder als Einzelne ausgeschlossen waren, ihnen als Kollektiv näher. Die Wahl, vor der die gesellschaftliche Entwicklung stellt, lautet also nicht, wie die sich als Souverän imaginierenden Intellektuellen es auch heute noch gerne hätten, ob man für das Individuum oder für das Kollektiv zu votieren hätte. Sie lautet einzig, in der Formulierung Benjamins, ob die Massen zu ihrem Ausdruck oder zu ihrem Recht kommen; ob also die Massen sich als Massen genießen (und die Vollendung dieses Genusses im Krieg als Massenschauspiel, in der Selbstvernichtung der Gattung als l’art pour l’art finden), oder ob sie, in der massenhaften Änderung der Eigentumsverhältnisse, eine Gesellschaft vorbereiten, »in der weder die objektiven noch die subjektiven Bedingungen zur Formierung von Massen mehr vorhanden sein werden«.

Mit der technischen Reproduzierbarkeit verliert das Werk, was Benjamin die Aura nennt: jene Erfahrung der Einmaligkeit, die dessen Autorität begründet. Genau diesen Verlust versucht Benjamin als Hebel der Befreiung zu erfassen. Kunst ohne Aura sei eben auch eine Kunst ohne Pomp und Weihe, ohne den Alb der toten Geschlechter. Zu diesem Zwecke werden eine Reihe von Entgegensetzungen eingeführt: Kult- und Ausstellungswert, Ritual und Politik, Schein und Raum, Kontemplation und Zerstreuung, die einen Raum abstecken, in dem der Verfall sich als ein Fortschritt, die Masse als Vorbedingung ihrer Abschaffung begreifen lässt. Was der Text dabei entwirft, sind stets — getreu Brechts Motto »Lieber das schlechte Neue als das gute Alte« — hochgradig ambivalente Konstruktionen. Wenn Benjamin apologetisch von den »Tests« spricht, denen die Apparatur Schauspieler und Zuschauer unterwirft, dann klingt darin nicht zufällig etwas vom staatssozialistischen Ingenieursideal des modernen, sich optimal an die Maschinerie anpassenden Arbeiters an. Aber indem er diese Anpassung in die Sphäre der Kunst, ins Jenseits der empirischen Zwänge verlagert, gewinnt diese Anpassung ein Moment des Standhaltens: der Erfahrung, der Technik gewachsen zu sein.

Sami Khatib hat in seinem Aufsatz »Walter Benjamins anthropologisches Denken« daran erinnert, wie entscheidend für den »Kunstwerk«-Aufsatz die Dimension der Leiblichkeit ist — eben das, was bei Adorno als Benjamins »anthropologischer Materialismus« firmiert. Nur zielt diese Anthropologie nicht auf ein Unwandelbares. In der auch körperlichen Erfahrung, dass die Produktivkräfte sich bewältigen lassen, wird der Blick eröffnet auf das, was Benjamin »zweite Technik« nennt: eine, die nicht mehr Unterjochung wäre, sondern, als »Nachahmung der Natur als geheimes Vormachen«, vollendete Mimesis — und deren Chocks daher zugleich auch als revolutionärer Weckreiz aus dem kapitalistischen Traumschlaf fungieren.

Gegenüber dieser Spekulation behält Adorno mit nahezu allen seinen Einwänden empirisch Recht. Der taktile Charakter der Massenkunst, auf den Benjamin setzte, rüttelte nicht auf, sondern trug nur zur Zermürbung bei, und im Kino erfahren die Massen nicht ihre Macht, sondern kompensieren ihre Ohnmacht. Was Adorno hingegen verfehlt, ist die Anlage des Ganzen. Seine Diagnose, die Angst vor der gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung treibe Benjamin zur »Identifikation mit dem Aggressor«, würde dieser wahrscheinlich gar nicht widersprechen wollen. Es handelt sich vielmehr um eine wohlerprobte Methode; eine, die man vielleicht den apokalyptischen Zug von Benjamins Denkens nennen könnte: der Versuch, noch das Unrettbare zu retten. »Nur um der Hoffnungslosen willen«, heißt der Schlussatz seines Essays über Goethes »Wahlverwandtschaften«, »ist uns die Hoffnung gegeben«.

Und doch trifft Adorno auch das Problematische an Benjamins Versuch. Schwer, nicht die Gewalt zu verspüren, die sich der Bewunderer Prousts antun muss, um statt der Autonomie des Kunstwerks dessen politische Operationalisierbarkeit zu verlangen. Gerade in der Verleiblichung der Erfahrung steckt auch ein Moment des Unwahren. So richtig es ist, dass Kritische Theorie dem Proletariat nicht, wie Benjamin es einmal schön ausdrückte, als »intellektueller Mäzen« gegenübertreten darf, so wenig kann die Alternative dazu der Entschluss sein, jene spezifisch intellektuelle Reaktionsweise — die geistige Distanz — einfach zu negieren, um unmittelbar eins zu werden mit den Entfremdungserfahrungen der Masse. Das eine kommt so selbstherrlich daher wie das andere.

.
Das Unabgegoltene

.
Auf die Herausforderung, die Benjamins Aufsatz zweifelsohne bedeutete, reagierte Adorno daher sehr vehement mit einem emphatischen Bekenntnis zu Lenins Theorie der Avantgarde. Benjamin, so lautet die Quintessenz von Adornos Kritik, traue »dem Proletariat (als dem Kinosubjekt) unvermittelt eine Leistung (zu), die es nach Lenins Satz anders gar nicht zustande bringen kann als durch die Theorie der Intellektuellen als der dialektischen Subjekte, die der von Ihnen in die Hölle verwiesenen Kunstwerke zugehören«. Weil »das tatsächliche Bewusstsein der tatsächlichen Proletarier« dem verstümmelten der Bürger »aber auch gar nichts (voraushat) als das Interesse an der Revolution«, bedürfe das Proletariat »unser so gut wie wir des Proletariats bedürfen, damit die Revolution gemacht werden kann«.

Nur bleibt, wie schon bei Lenin selbst, das Problem, wie ein solches Erkenntnisprivileg materialistisch zu begründen ist. Die Exponenten der Avantgarde, das wusste auch Adorno, stehen immer in Gefahr, sich als über den Klassen schwebende »Geistesmenschen« zu inszenieren, denen Erkenntnis zugeflogen sei. Nicht zufällig spielten die Bürgerkinder in den Siebzigern so gerne leninistische Kaderpartei; und eine Gruppe wie der »Gegenstandpunkt« bezieht bis heute einen Großteil ihrer Anziehungskraft aus dem Versprechen, wer zu ihr gehöre, verfüge souverän und wie von selbst über die tauglichen Argumente, die es dann den Proleten nur noch einzuleuchten gilt.

Dem latenten Idealismus begegnet Adorno, indem er, gegen Benjamin, seinerseits auf Technik rekurriert — allerdings nicht auf die der Reproduktion, sondern die des Kunstwerks selbst, sein immanentes Formgesetz. »Sie unterschätzen«, erklärte er Benjamin, »die Technizität der autonomen Kunst und überschätzen die der abhängigen« — denn im Begriff der künstlerischen Autonomie liege es, durch »die äußerste Konsequenz in der Befolgung des technischen Gesetzes« das Werk der Sphäre des Kultischen zu entziehen und es als bewusst Herstellbares transparent zu machen. Wenn die Dialektik sich aus der politischen Praxis zurückgezogen hat, findet sie in der Kunst ein Refugium. In ihr, der urbürgerlichen, kündigt sich, wird einmal ganz erfüllt, wohin sie von sich aus will, zugleich ein Anderes, Inbegriff menschlicher Freiheit, an. Und was für die Kunst gilt, gilt allgemein, wie Adorno in einem zur gleichen Zeit wie »Hebelpunkt« entstandenen Aphorismus schreibt, für »die entwickeltesten Disziplinen der Bourgeoisie, ihr selbst schon so gründlich entfremdet, dass sie ihr wohl entrissen und eingeschmolzen werden können«.

Diesem Materialismus der Avantgarde ist ­Adorno theoretisch stets treu geblieben. Revolutionstheorie, das ist in seinen Schriften vor allem anderen Musikphilosophie. Nirgends wird die Möglichkeit des Fortschritts in der Geschichte genauer erörtert als in den Schriften zu Beethoven, Mahler, der Zweiten Wiener Schule. Fundiert wird dies im Begriff des musikalischen Materials als sedimentierter Geschichte. Die Austragung der in ihm gespeicherten Widersprüche erlaubt, ganz ohne deklamatorischen Bezug auf »die Gesellschaft«, den Blick aufs Ganze, auf die Bewegung der Totalität — und eröffnet ein historisch gesättigtes Bild dessen, was gesellschaftlich möglich wäre.

Zugleich aber findet im Rahmen dieser Kontinuität auch ein feiner, aber merklicher Wandel statt. Die frühen musiktheoretischen Schriften kennzeichnet, insbesondere im Hinblick auf Schönberg und die Zweite Wiener Schule, ein heroischer Ton. Deren Kompositionen werden als Rationalisierung fast im Sinne Max Webers gepriesen: als vollkommene Durchbildung, worin, wie es in immer wiederkehrenden Wendungen heißt, »wahrhaft keine Note überflüssig«, alles »ganz auskomponiert« sei. Beginnend mit der »Philosophie der Neuen Musik«, beschleicht Adorno jedoch ein Unbehagen am herrschaftlichen Gehalt dieser Konstruktion. An die Stelle des prometheischen Avantgardesubjekts, das sich souverän das Material unterwirft, rückt nach und nach, verkörpert vor allem von Mahler und Berg, eine ganz andere Haltung: die des Nicht-ganz-Mitgekommen-Seins, einer gewissen Ich-Schwäche. Statt das Material zu bändigen, lassen die Genannten es wachsen und wuchern; weil sie nicht an der Spitze des Fortschritts stehen, sondern immer ein wenig exterritorial dazu, können sie im Strom der Geschichte deren Treibgut bergen, ihr Unabgegoltenes.

Motiviert ist diese Wendung einerseits rein musikalisch. Im Serialismus, einer Weiterentwicklung der von Schönberg inaugurierten Zwölftontechnik, die nicht bloß die Tonhöhen, sondern jeden Parameter — Dauer, Lautstärke, Klangfarbe — der Reihenorganisation unterwarf, erkannte Adorno das Extrem einer vollkommen durchrationalisierten Musik, die wegen ihrer totalen Organisation in vollkommene Kontingenz umschlägt. In der innermusikalischen Entwicklung aber spiegelt sich, der Lehre vom musikalischen Material gemäß, eine gesellschaftliche. Der Neuen Musik eignete wesentlich immer auch eine polemische Spitze: die Wendung gegen die Tradition, gegen den Bürger, der es sich bei »seiner« Musik wohlsein lässt. Fällt dieser Widerpart weg; gibt es die sich durch Bildung und Geschmack ausweisende Bourgeoisie nicht mehr, die sich herausgefordert fühlen könnte, verliert auch die Neue Musik ihre gesellschaftliche Substanz. Sie verwandelt sich in einen beliebigen Stil unter vielen, ein Hobby für Experten. Man kann nicht ewig die Sonatenform aufheben.

Mit der selbstbewussten Bourgeoisie aber verschwindet auch, besiegelt in der NS-Volksgemeinschaft, das klassenbewusste Proletariat, das Adorno einst als Bündnispartner avisierte. Was für Lenin 1905 so selbstverständlich war, dass es keiner weiteren Begründung bedurfte, dass die Arbeiter nach Theorie verlangen, war 1935 für Adorno nur noch als kontrafaktische Beschwörung zu haben; nach 1945 nicht einmal mehr das. Vielleicht ist das der tiefste Grund dafür, dass Adorno die Position der Avantgarde unheimlich wurde — ohne sie doch, wie die Gespräche mit Horkheimer zeigen, ganz zur Disposition zu stellen. (Und wirklich kann wohl nur Avantgarde sein, wem das unheimlich ist; was gerade die Achtundsechziger, die Adorno so gerne als ihren Lenin gehabt hätten, am allerwenigsten verstehen konnten.)

Die Praxis, auf die sich Kritische Theorie im Nachkriegsdeutschland verwiesen sah, hieß eben nicht mehr Revolution, sondern Reeducation. Auch diese musste ja, gegen das »Volk williger Knechte, Denunzianten und Zutreiber«, von kleinen, verschworenen Kadergruppen vorangetrieben werden. Wenn Adorno sich 1956 erneut Lenin widmete, dann mit der gleichen Frage wie 20 Jahre zuvor, aber unter völlig veränderten Bedingungen. Sie erfordert daher auch eine andere Aktualisierung, eine, die Lenins Skepsis gegenüber der Spontaneität des Klassenbewusstseins zum allseitigen Misstrauen radikalisiert — den anderen gegenüber wie sich selbst. Ein Fingerzeig darauf findet sich bereits im eingangs zitierten Verdikt Adornos über Fromm. Anlass dessen war Fromms Nörgelei in der Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, in der Psychoanalyse Freuds fehle es den Patienten gegenüber an Liebe; worauf Adorno lapidar entgegnete, dass die Menschen nun einmal nicht durchgehend liebenswert seien. Das aber bezeichnet die kaum auflösbare Aporie der Revolution, weit über die Nachkriegszeit und Deutschland hinaus: dass sie nicht nur von den, sondern auch für die Menschen vollbracht werden muss, die, deformiert und verächtlich, wie sie unter den herrschenden Verhältnissen nun einmal sind, das Glück der befreiten Gesellschaft kaum auch nur verdient haben.

Anmerkungen


(1) Das gleiche Motiv findet sich bei Brumlik im Zuge der Debatte um die Verleihung des Adorno-Preises an Judith Butler. Deren Parteinahme für Hamas und Hizbollah solle man so wenig ernst nehmen wie Adornos Jazz-Schriften, denn so seien Philosophen nun einmal: politisch unzurechnungsfähig, aber geniale Denker.
(2) Darum ist nicht die Nähe zu politischer Macht, die Intellektuelle so gerne suchen, schlechthin das Problem, sondern der Ausfall der Reflexion darin; die Vorstellung etwa, es seien die antideutschen Kommunisten, die Israel und die USA zu schützen und bewahren hätten, und nicht etwa Israel und Amerika, die so etwas wie antideutsche Kommunisten überhaupt erst denkbar machen.
(3) Zu den Nebenprodukten seines theoretischen Studiums gehörte die Erkenntnis, dass der Schlüssel zum »Kapital« nicht, wie in der Vorkriegssozialdemokratie üblich, in den geschichtsphilosophischen Entwürfen der Kapitel zur sogenannten ursprünglichen Akkumulation zu finden ist, sondern im Begriff der Ware als widersprüchlicher Einheit — eine Erkenntnis, die dann via Lukács, dem ersten genuinen Philosophen der Oktoberrevolution, in den Kernbestand der Kritischen Theorie einwandern sollte.
(4) Wie als Gegenfolie dazu liest sich Rüdiger Mats’ Beitrag im genannten Sammelband, der näher an der Sache argumentiert. Ohne die theoretischen Verkürzungen und praktischen Grausamkeiten der Bolschewiki unter den Tisch fallen zu lassen, zeigt er auf, dass sich in der zentralen Aporie der Oktoberrevolution das Kardinalproblem jeder gesellschaftlichen Umwälzung reflektiert: wie sich Produktion emanzipatorisch umgestalten lässt, während doch zugleich weiter produziert werden muss. Zwar mag man hoffen (und, wenn man im Zusammenhang der Revolution von Realismus sprechen kann, auch realistisch davon ausgehen), dass der nächste Versuch weniger desaströse Bedingungen vorfinden wird als die des rückständigen, von Krieg, Bürgerkrieg und imperialistischer Intervention zerrütteten Russland; aber zum Begriff der Revolution gehört, dass sie unter schlechten Bedingungen stattfindet; wären Mangel, Not und Dummheit beseitigt, bräuchte es sie nicht.
(5) Durchaus fraglich also, ob die Revolution unter Führung der damaligen Linksradikalen weniger blutig verlaufen wäre. Zu den zentralen Topoi der Bolschewismuskritik von links gehörte, schon bei Luxemburg, der Vorwurf, Lenin und Genossen machten, auf Kosten der Arbeiterklasse, zu viele Zugeständnisse ans Bauerntum. Damit war es dann bekanntlich mit Stalins Zwangskollektivierung der Landwirtschaft vorbei.
(6) In seinem Beitrag zum zweiten Band der Buchreihe »Begegnungen feindlicher Brüder«, der sich dem Verhältnis von Marxismus und Anarchismus widmet, zeigt Hendrik Wallat, dass Adorno jene beiden konkurrierenden Strömungen der Arbeiterbewegung mit zwei gegensätzlichen Erklärungsmodellen zur Entstehung der Herrschaft identifiziert, zwischen denen er sich zu entscheiden sucht. Die Marxisten sähen deren Wurzel im Stoffwechsel mit der Natur; die Anarchisten in einem urgeschichtlichen Akt der Willkür. Als empirische Beschreibung mag das zutreffend gewesen sein: Anarchisten und Sozialisten lagen zwar in Sachen Staat über Kreuz, aber darin, dass eine Kritik der Arbeit so unsinnig wäre wie eine Kritik der Schwerkraft, dürften sie übereingestimmt haben. Theoretisch fällt die schlichte Gegenüberstellung von Freiheit und Notwendigkeit freilich hinter das von Marx erreichte Reflexionsniveau zurück. Um sich unterm Kapital als Naturwesen zu erhalten, erschaffen die Menschen die Bedingungen dessen, was mehr als Natur wäre: eine Welt, in der die Plackerei nicht mehr naturnotwendig wäre. Und nur, weil die Produktion die mögliche Freiheit vom Zwang verkörpert, ist sie im Kapitalismus nie ohne die Despotie der Herrschaft zu haben.
(7) Weshalb dessen Neuedition im Rahmen der historisch-kritischen Gesamtausgabe nur zu begrüßen ist. Indem diese den Aufsatz nicht als abgeschlossenes Werk, sondern mit allen Streichungen, Umstellungen, Überarbeitungen und nachgelassenen Notizen präsentiert, ermöglicht sie jenen minutiösen Nachvollzug, aus dem erst die Intention des Ganzen hervorspringt.

Literatur


Walter Benjamin: Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit. Hrsg. von Burkhardt Lindner. Werke und Nachlass, Bd. 16, Berlin 2013
Carolin Duttlinger u. a. (Hg.): Walter Benjamins anthropologisches Denken, Freiburg 2012
Hendrik Wallat: Staat oder Revolution. Aspekte und Probleme linker Bolschewismuskritik, Münster 2012
Gruppe INEX (Hg.): Nie wieder Komunismus? Zur linken Kritik an Stalinismus und Realsozialismus, Münster 2012
Philippe Kellermann: Begegnungen feindlicher Brüder. Bd. 2, Münster 2012
Michael Seidman: Gegen die Arbeit. Über die Arbeiterkämpfe in Barcelona und Paris 1936–38, Heidelberg 2011


Leaked ISO internal bulletins, 2015 edition

$
0
0

.
Below you will find the latest batch of internal bulletins from the International Socialist Organization, a US Trotskyist sect. Multiple concerned members, troubled by the group’s lack of transparency and accountability, sent me the documents via e-mail. Like last year’s set, these are marked “for members’ eyes only.” Such secrecy is usually justified by dusting off passages from Lenin’s 113-year-old tome What is to be Done?, which sought to adapt Marxist organizational principles to the tsarist police state. Police infiltration, monitoring, and surveillance of radical groups certainly continues to be a problem, as documents from 2008 confirm, but I would be hard pressed to find anyone who believes this is some sort of new COINTELPRO or Okhrana.

Don’t tell them that, though. They’re still under the delusion that their puny organization — fewer than two thousand members, even on paper — is the object of intense persecution by the United States government. When I posted the internal bulletins back in February 2014, there was lots of talk on the Kasama Project website about “security culture,” where an article by Mike Ely appeared under the title “Leaking internal ISO docs: A question of revolutionary ethics.” Beyond that, the ISO tried to smear me, issuing this defamatory prompt to be posted wherever people linked to my blog:

Anyone who considers defending or associating with Ross Wolfe should always have this reposted, a defense of the FBI arrests of Palestine solidarity activists, as a reminder of what he is. Not just an utterly racist, elitist, sexist troll with a creepy, nasty obsession with wanting Muslim women unveiled. But also an utter scumbag and danger to the Left, ready to call for a state crackdown on activists, no matter what their background. Know your enemy.

Following a recent row resulting from my disclosure of a reported rape coverup in Solidarity-US, which implicates a prominent “socialist feminist” initialed JB (Joanna Brenner?) in the obstruction of an internal investigation, Shaun Joseph of the ISO Renewal Faction reassured me: “Character assassination is basically how these people [leftists] work, as I know all too well. All this stuff about protecting the survivor’s identity is bullshit — it’s so transparently self-interested.” Shaun was expelled from the ISO a year ago, along with the rest of the Renewal Faction en masse. Last month people tried to claim I threatened to release information about the victims in the Soli case, which was, of course, a complete fabrication. They even led a “boycott, divestment, sanction, and unfriend” campaign against me (I’m not kidding), threatening to block anyone who still had mutuals with me on Facebook. It’s pretty sad that the most politically meaningful act anyone can imagine is an ultimatum to cut ties with some person on social media. Like cutting someone off from the leper colony of the contemporary Left is some great punishment. Most people outgrew this petty bullshit in middle school.

1926248_423233237810593_1005765957_o 11041602_611924825608099_6768852848968486576_o

Anyway, I’ve gone ahead and removed all names of individual ISO members in the documents, as well as the cities in which they live or are active. Not that I believe for one minute that anyone lost their job over last year’s leak, but this way they don’t even have that canard to hurl back at me. Here they are, available to download as PDFs:

  1. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 01
  2. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 02 — The complexities of rape and sexual assault: A contribution (Nov 16 2014)
  3. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 03
  4. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 04
  5. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 05
  6. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 06
  7. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 07
  8. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 08
  9. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 09 — Believing Survivors: A Response to Concerns (Feb 6, 2015)
  10. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 10
  11. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 11
  12. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 12 — Reply to “Believing Survivors” (February 10, 2015)
  13. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 13
  14. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 14 — Against the Proposals set forth in the document “Believing Survivors: A Response to Concerns”
  15. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 15 — Assessing the Response to Sexual Misconduct (February 11, 2015)
  16. ISO Preconvention Bulletin 16

Some highlights from the bulletins: First, responding to the whole issue of whether accusers should be believed when it comes to accusations of rape, harassment, or sexual assault, SS wrote:

The aims and strategies of state infiltrators need to be carefully considered [in assessing accusations of misconduct].

COINTELPRO — the FBI program to “disrupt, discredit, and destroy” left wing and social justice movements between 1957 and 1971 — involved a massive infiltration strategy. COINTELPRO operatives used any and all means to accomplish its aims — including sowing distrust between movement members that sometimes involved inventing fictional sexual activities. In 1974, a U.S. government investigation of this program revealed:

A distressing number of the programs and techniques developed by the intelligence community involved transgressions against human decency that were no less serious than any technical violations of law. Some of the most fundamental values of this society were threatened by activities such as the smear campaign against Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., the testing of dangerous drugs on unsuspecting American citizens, the dissemination of information about the sex lives, drinking habits, and marital problems of electronic surveillance targets, and the COINTELPRO attempts to turn dissident organizations against one another and to destroy marriages.

R and B argue, “We feel that a straightforward policy that trusts survivors in the absence of direct counter-evidence will decrease the likelihood that this sort of accusation could be used by the state against us. If the policy is uniform and clear, there is far less to be gained by the state through false accusations of rape.” But R and B’s approach actually makes it easier for the state to successfully harm its targets inside the organization — since the assumption of guilt will automatically result in the expulsion of those accused (by anyone, including a state infiltrator) of sexual assault.

This strikes me as delusional at best, and cynical at worst. SS attempts to scare up sympathetic paranoia in the ranks of the membership, so that any accusation of misconduct might be greeted with suspicion. Who’s to say the accuser is not some sort of state agent or government saboteur? Once this specter is raised, the whole imperative to “believe the survivor” is chucked right out the window. Personally, I believe there should still be a presumption of innocence no matter what the charge — though such charges are not made frivolously, and must of course be taken with the utmost seriousness. But that doesn’t mean an organization can’t at least suspend a member in the meantime while they check out the evidence. Marxist organizations are not, nor do they need to be, courts of law. It’s not like a bunch of crusty sectarians have the power to send someone to jail, so the burden of proof shouldn’t have to be so high. You can’t have it both ways, though: either you believe the accuser or you believe s/he might be a plant.

After larger contingent of ISO members responded in Bulletin #9 that they hadn’t heard of any cases where infiltrators tried to accuse their comrades of misconduct, DB, a leader in [redacted], shot back:

[T]he authors claim to lack knowledge of any case in which a left organization was harmed by expelling members accused of sexual assault, this ignores that in the COINTELPRO era, the FBI used just such a tactic not uncommonly. But we may not be able to cite to more recent examples because COINTELPRO is likely not a widespread tactic employed by law enforcement anymore (though not saying it doesn’t occur at all) — simply due to the relative weakness of the left vis-à-vis its 1960’s counterparts.

The document then completely discounts the potential — when the left does become bigger and thus more of a threat to the capitalist state — for law enforcement to concoct accusations of sexual assault to marginalize leading members of left organizations. The authors then assert its foolhardy on our part to think we could discover that tactic even if it was taking place, citing to the Black Powers movement only discovering same after-the-fact. And while the Black Panthers (to cite one example within the Black Power movement) were largely unaware of the extent of the infiltration or the forms it was taking, it is also unclear that they had a formal complaint & investigation procedure in place such as the one we’re currently looking to implement. However, the point is that we probably would have difficulty in discovering a false accusation of sexual assault put on by a 21st-century COINTELPRO.

Using paranoia to crush criticisms or complaints is nothing new, though it’s a tradition more strongly associated with Stalinism than with Trotskyism. Time was that you could get rid of troublemakers in the party simply by suggesting they might be “wreckers” or British spies. Paul Heideman and Carlos Rivera-Jones insinuated I was an informant or a snitch. Not much has changed, it seems.

It doesn’t end there, though. Lingering doubts about the (mis)handling of sexual misconduct allegations last year surface in some of the Bulletin#15. ER wrote, “I don’t feel that the role of the steering committee has been resolved though. After the initial accusations a steering committee member was aware.” He goes on to note that the account in the infamous Preconvetion Bulletin #19 last year contradicted claims made in the ISO’s public “Response to Slander”:  “This statement is in conflict with the events described in PCB#19, which describes just this sort of behavior [indifference and inaction] by the ISO branch, but also by the Steering Committee.”

Rather than admit to this obvious inconsistency, the Steering Committee decided to heap yet more scorn upon the banished Renewal Faction:

From the beginning, the Steering Committee disputed as factually incorrect the claims contained in the document about the leadership’s handling of this case. We believed then, as we do now, that the original documents’ authors were sincerely attempting to correct what they believed to be mistakes made in the case. The Renewal Faction, however, deliberately and destructively misrepresented the facts of this matter, accusing the Steering Committee of engaging in a “cover up” of sexual assault. In addition, the Renewal Faction chose to post the original document (and numerous other internal ISO documents) online a year ago, seriously compromising the privacy of the accuser in this case. For this reason, the Steering Committee chose not to respond to the accusations in our internal publications and instead issued a public statement. We continue to stand by the public statement of the Steering Committee and the National Committee.

Nevermind the fact that the accuser was overjoyed the documents were leaked. So much so, that she gave her friend the okay to publish the whole sordid tale (anonymously) on this blog. But this is a common tactic, trying to discredit those who expose an organization’s bungling by saying they violate the victim’s wishes. Maybe we should just take their word for it, and no one on the Steering Committee knew anything about the accusations. How could anyone find out either way, unless they released all e-mail correspondence between the Steering Committee and the branch members? Assuming, of course, it hasn’t been deleted already.

Chuck Stemke’s — er, Comrade Daniel’s — article on the Bob Filner sex scandal is still up on Socialist Worker’s website, after all. “We have to think through who might see the documents and what implications they might have for our political work,” warns Bulletin #1. “Disgruntled former members and sectarians can exploit and twist the documents to fit their own convenient narratives (as we saw earlier this year). At our convention, documents were cynically exploited, putting the anonymity of a survivor of sexual assault at risk, for example.” Have a look for yourselves in the documents above. See whether the professional revolutionaries of the ISO were misrepresented in any way, by myself or Renewal Faction or anyone else.


Walter Gropius, Monument to the March Dead (1922)

$
0
0

.
Between 1920 and 1922 a monument in honor of the workers who lost their lives during the Kapp Putsch was erected in the Weimar central cemetery. It was commissioned by the Union Cartel of Weimar and built according to plans submitted to a competition by the architectural office of Walter Gropius. Although Gropius maintained that the Bauhaus should remain politically neutral, he ultimately agreed to participate in the competition staged among Weimar artists at the end of 1920. The monument was arranged around an inner space, in which visitors could stand, the repeatedly fractured and highly angular memorial rose up on three sides as if thrust up from or rammed into the earth.

In February 1936, the Nazis destroyed the monument due to its political overtones, and considered its design to fall under the category of degenerate art. Underneath the images posted immediately below, you can read an account of the event written by the German left communist Arthur Rosenberg.

il_fullxfull.330003812

18739151 18739155 18739153 18739154 18739152 510974 urn-3_HUAM_21415_dynmc 8367294 04.08.14 - 1

The Kapp Putsch

Arthur Rosenberg
History of the German
Republic (1936)
.

On 14 June 1919, Wissell, then Reich Minister for Economy, said at the Socialist Party meeting in Weimar:

Despite the revolution, the nation feels that its hopes have been disappointed. Those things which the people expected of the government have not come to pass. We have further consolidated political democracy in a formal sense; true. But we have not yet done anything but carry on the program which had already been begun by the Imperial German government of Prince Max of Baden. The constitution has been prepared without any real and active participation on the part of the people. We have not been able to satisfy the dull resentment with which the masses are imbued because we have had no real program.

Essentially we have governed according to the old forms of our state life. We have only succeeded in breathing very little fresh life into these forms. We have not been able so to influence the revolution that Germany seemed filled with a new spirit. The inner structure of German civilization, of social life, appears little altered. And even so, not for the better. The nation believes that the achievements of the revolution are simply negative in character, that in place of one form of military and bureaucratic government by individuals another has been introduced, and that the principles of government do not differ essentially from those of the old regime… I believe that the verdict of history upon both the National Assembly and ourselves will be severe and bitter.

It must be admitted that Wissell saw very clearly the state of affairs in Germany at that time. In every way the minutes of this first party meeting held by the Majority Socialists after the revolution is a document as affecting as it is instructive. On the one side stood the opposition minority, among whom Wissell must actually be reckoned, which recognized the fatal nature of the path that the German Revolution was treading. On the other side was the majority, which was grouped about the party leaders and the government, and which strove convulsively after optimism. The motions put forward by the opposition organizations show the temper then prevailing among millions of workmen. The motions demanded over and over again that efforts should be made to restore peace with the USPD, even if discredited leaders had to be sacrificed. The Münster organization demanded: “The Reichswehr Minister Noske shall be expelled from the party.” Frankfurt-on-the-Main demanded:

The Social Democratic group in the Constituent National Assembly shall be ordered to do all in its power to ensure the rapid disbanding of the volunteer corps and the formation of a national defense upon democratic foundations.

Hamburg said:

The meeting of the delegates of the Social Democratic Party of Hamburg regards the volunteer army as constituting a serious danger to the achievements of the revolution. Its delegates to the party meeting are therefore under the obligation to demand the creation of a national army according to the provisions of the Erfurt Program.

Other motions advocated the councils, nationalization, the democratization of the administration, the abolition of the old bureaucracy. To these were added the wails of delegates from rural districts, who felt that they had been abandoned, and complained that since the lapse of the workers’ councils they had been delivered over to the old powers again. The majority at the party meeting undoubtedly felt equally strongly the grievances that were raised. But in view of the course hitherto taken by the revolution they saw no way out and voted down the opposition’s motions.

kapp-putsch-germany-march-1920-chaos-first-world-war-instablity Kapp-Putsch_Marine-Brigade_Erhardt Kapp-Putsch, Posten am Spittelmarkt, Berlin

The exodus of the workmen from the SPD to the USPD became increasingly rapid. And the embitterment of the radical masses was greatly increased by the sanguinary events that took place in Berlin on 13 January 1920. The Reichstag was at that time discussing a government measure for the establishment of industrial councils. Its purpose was to confine the activity of these councils essentially to the sphere of social welfare. The opposition among the working classes regarded the proposed law as inadequate. The USPD organized a mass demonstration in front of the Reichstag, against the government bill and in favor of wider powers for the councils. The Communists joined in the demonstration. The demonstrators were perfectly peaceful. Nobody had any idea of storming the Reichstag, or of attempting a coup. Various working-class leaders made speeches to the assembled masses in front of the Reichstag. The technical mistake was indeed made of keeping the masses assembled before the Reichstag for too long a time. Slight brushes occurred between the workmen and the police who had been called up in case of emergency. At length the police came to the conclusion that there was reason to fear an attack upon the Reichstag, and machine-guns were turned on the unarmed demonstrators. The crowd was dispersed. Forty-two workmen were killed. The political responsibility for the attitude of the police on 13 January was borne by the Prussian Minister for the Interior, Wolfgang Heine.

At the very time when the SPD was losing a large part of its adherents, the great majority of the middle classes openly turned against the republic. The urban and rural middle classes had been perfectly prepared after 9 November to accept the new order, and to cooperate in building up the republic on democratic lines. Out of consideration for the middle classes the government had believed it necessary to proceed with the utmost caution. Yet it was the hesitancy of the republican leaders that alienated the middle classes. If great and decisive action had been taken, such as, for example, the expropriation of great landowners and the nationalization of mines, and if the government had shown the people that a new era had really dawned, then the government would also have carried the middle classes along with it. Since, however, everything was obviously going to remain unchanged, enthusiasm for the revolution evaporated and the republic and democracy were blamed for all the trials of daily life.

The middle classes suffered under the hopeless economic conditions and the increasing devaluation of the currency. Above all, however, the government seemed incapable of securing law and order in the country. In this case, again, the Majority Socialist leaders achieved the exact contrary of what they were aiming at. They esteemed law and order above everything, and were continually in conflict with the radical working classes in the name of order. But it was the disappointment of the workers at the course taken by revolution and at the government’s relentless policy of orderliness that led to continual strikes, unrest and fighting. Thus the middle classes, who were anxious once more to lead a quiet if modest existence, came to the conclusion that republicanism was responsible for the confusion and that it produced impoverishment, profiteering, corruption and dissension. Longing eyes looked back to the old days of the monarchy, which, though it had its faults too, permitted a man to attend to his business quietly and under the protection of the law.

To the ill success of the republic in material matters was added its failure in national affairs. It was not the fault of the republican government that the conditions of peace were so hard or that Germany’s position as a world power was destroyed. It was the legacy of the old system which was taken over by the republic. But the republican parties, and especially the SPD, did not discover the right attitude to adopt towards the increasingly important national problems for Germany arising out of the Treaty of Versailles.

addon8

Marx, Engels, and Lassalle had always felt themselves to be responsible for the whole German nation in the sphere of the revolutionary democracy of 1848. In their determined advocacy of the interests of the German people they had never permitted themselves to be outdone by any other body of political opinion. Social Democracy after 1871, on the other hand, looked upon itself predominantly as the standard-bearer of the workers’ opposition to the ruling system. It criticized the foreign policy, the “militarism” and the nationalist demands of the ruling classes, but was not in a position to confront Imperial policy with a real national and socialist program. When war broke out in 1914 German democracy sanctioned war-credits and maintained the political truce out of sense of patriotic duty.

Thus Majority Socialism had a true nationalist tradition at its disposal if it chose to use it. By remaining true to its attitude of 1914-1918 it might have made the fight for the threatened existence of the German nation and for the revision of the Treaty of Versailles the central aim of its agitation. The party did, in fact, make a determined protest against the dictated peace. It was not, however, in a position to seize the leadership of the new national opposition to the Entente that was now in process of formation in Germany. The SPD, and the same is also to some extent true of the Democrats and the Center, wished on the one hand to maintain Germany’s national interests, but on the other hand also to promote pacification and international understanding. The antagonism between the different aims prevented the laying down of a clearly defined program for the daily agitation of the republican parties. Thus the leadership of the national opposition to the enforced peace drifted into the hands of the parties of the right — an event destined to have serious consequences.

The republicans might have combined a definitely national attitude with a revelation of the mistakes made by the old system at the outbreak and during the course of the war. As a matter of fact it is historically false to ascribe to William II and Bethmann-Hollweg, both of whom were fundamentally pacific by nature, a conscious desire to provoke the World War. The moral accusation of war guilt which the Entente made against the rulers of Germany in 1914 was unjustified. But the fact remains that the appalling mistakes made by the rulers of Germany in foreign policy very definitely contributed to Germany’s becoming involved in a war that held out no prospect of victory. The mistakes of the old regime also prevented Germany’s finding a tolerable way out of the postwar miseries.

The instinct of self-preservation alone should have obliged the republican parties continually to reiterate in their agitation not the moral but the political war-guilt of the old system. Even if the mistakes of Bethmann-Hollweg were condemned, the vital interests of the German nation could at the same time be resolutely defended against the Entente. When, however, men like Eisner, Bernstein and to some extent also Erzberger tried to broach the question of the war-guilt of the old regime publicly, they were met with indignant protests, and were almost without support even in the republican ranks.

It is unfortunately undeniable that German republican policy was guided largely by a desire not to overstep the bounds of “good form.” It “was not the thing to do in Germany” to discuss the question of the war-guilt of the Imperial government, because, so it was said, that was tantamount to playing into the hands of the Entente: for the Entente justified the severe conditions of the peace treaty by Germany’s alleged war-guilt. The indignation with which Bernstein was greeted by a majority when he dared to make some critical remarks concerning war-guilt at the party meeting of the SPD at Weimar, to which reference has several times been made, is significant. But if the majority at the SPD party meeting was so sensitive in national matters and was so indignant with the alleged anti-nationalism of Bernstein — why did not these same men go into every corner of the land and passionately summon the masses to fight against the policy of the Entente? The fact was that nothing was done consistently and wholeheartedly. People were as patriotic as decency demanded, and were quite genuinely indignant at Bernstein’s “anti-nationalism.” But they could not work themselves up to a vehement nationalist agitation. Thus the republicans left unused the immensely strong weapon which they possessed against the old system in the question of war-guilt. At the same time they abandoned the leadership of the nationalist movement to counter-revolutionary forces.

maxresdefault AHW_Kapp-Putsch_verlassene_Barrikaden_Muenzgasse28_Leipzig_1920 Kapp Putsch-Government troops

The opinion of Marx and Engels upon the part played in the life of nations by war and force was perfectly sound and matter-of-fact. The Second International, on the contrary, had displayed a vague, temperamental pacifism in its opposition to militarism and imperialism. The German Revolution in November 1918 was mainly the outcome of a longing for peace on the part of the masses. Hence republican agitation from the very beginning was inclined to peace at any price and to cultivate a horror of war. This pacifist tendency on the part of the German republicans also prevented their presenting a decided nationalist front to the Entente, because they feared that a determined struggle against the policy of the other nations would be contrary to the principle of peace and conciliation.

It was in consequence of this belief that the republican parties never came to assume a proper attitude to the tradition of the World War. It is indisputable that despite tremendous mistakes made by their rulers the German nation in arms achieved great deeds during the four years of war. The enormous and justifiable longing for peace that filled the German nation in November 1918 could not permanently extinguish the memory of the deeds of the German troops during the war. When those who had taken part in the war began to cultivate their military traditions again, the republican parties could not decide what attitude to adopt towards them. Since millions of those who had taken part in the war were to be found in their own ranks, the republicans might have made it a part of their work to preserve what was valuable and honorable in military tradition. Nevertheless, even in this sphere, which was so important morally, the leadership was left to the parties of the right.

A serious psychological mistake was made in the same sphere by the republican majority of the National Assembly in the question of the national flag. If the red flag of socialism was not to be hoisted as the Reich flag, there was no reason for not retaining the old colors — black, white and red. They were the symbols of that German unity created by Bismarck which the republic wished to preserve. The symbol of feudal reaction was to be found not in the black-white-red colors of Germany but in the black and white banner of Prussia. Curiously enough, the republic left the black and white flag in existence and abolished the black-white-and-red. The new colors, black-red-gold, which implied a return to the traditions of 1848, remained alien to the masses of the German people. The socialist working class without distinction of party preferred the red flag and the middle classes were faithful to the black-white-red. Outside official republican government circles the black-red-gold colors never achieved any real popularity. The adherents of the military tradition, even in a good sense, felt themselves deeply injured by the change of flag. The parties of the right flew the black-white-red flag with the more determination at their demonstrations.

The republican government alienated the middle classes to such an extent that on both material and moral grounds they wanted to have nothing more to do with any republic on the Weimar pattern. The mass movement of middle-class electors to the right resulted in something very near to the annihilation of the Democratic Party and in heavy losses to the Center. The middle-class and nationalist opposition saw the main support of the hated new system in the Majority Socialists who appointed the President and the Chancellor, and who were the leaders in the National Assembly. The demand, therefore, came from the middle classes that the Social Democrats should be ousted from the government in order that Germany might once more return to better conditions. The National Assembly had completed its task — the drafting of the new constitution — by the summer of 1919. But it still remained in session, and the middle classes accused the government of delaying new elections in order to remain in power themselves. The cry rose ever louder that the National Assembly should be abolished to make room for a new parliament. The middle classes were convinced that when the new elections were held the Weimar regime would collapse.

ADN-ZB/Archiv Konterrevolution‰rer Kapp-Putsch vom 13.-17.3.1920 in Berlin Mit dem Einmarsch der Marinebrigade Ehrhardt am 13. M‰rz in Berlin beginnt der Putsch. Am selben Tag wird eine Regierung unter Wolfgang Kapp und General von L¸ttwitz gebildet. Unter der  schwarz-weifl-roten Fahne, dam Stahlhelm das Hakenkreuz, verteilen Angehˆrige der Marinebrigade am 13. M‰rz Flugbl‰tter. 2905-20

As has been stated above, Erzberger had gradually come to take the leading part in the Bauer government. As Finance Minister he endeavored to increase the income of the Reich by a series of new laws. His determined antagonism to the old regime made him an object of especial hatred to the middle-class opposition. Erzberger, an impulsive and temperamental nature, was not always as careful as a leading statesman should be either in public or private life. Fundamentally he was an absolutely honest man, but even in official matters he committed errors which were exaggerated out of all proportion by his opponents. The Nationalists, especially the former Imperial minister Helfferich, began a violent agitation against Erzberger, who was pilloried as the symbol of republican corruption. Excitement ran so high that towards the end of January 1920 an ex-ensign named von Hirschfeld fired a shot at Erzberger in Berlin. The Minister was slightly wounded. Erzberger took an action for libel, which he lost. He resigned on 12 March. On the following day the troops of the counter-revolution marched into Berlin under the black-white-red colors.

The middle-class opposition of the right was not only continually growing in numbers, but under the prevailing conditions in the republic it was also in control of the armed forces. It was therefore by no means beyond the bounds of probability that if the government and the National Assembly would not disappear of their own free will, they would be swept away by force. It was believed that the working classes, disarmed and disunited, were no longer to be feared.

A plot was hatched for the downfall of the republican government. The leaders were the nationalist politician Kapp, who had even during the World War been prominent as a violent opponent of Bethmann-Hollweg, and the Reichswehr General von Luttwitz. The attempt was to be made by the Free Corps from the Baltic states. These units were then supposed to be in process of demobilization. They resisted demobilization and were prepared to do anything to maintain their existence.

On 13 March 1920, the Ehrhardt Brigade marched into Berlin. Noske proved to have no reliable troops at his command ready to undertake the defense of Berlin against the rebels. The government and the President were obliged to leave the capital. They went first to Dresden and then to Stuttgart. Kapp proclaimed himself Chancellor, and, guarded by Ehrhardt’s machine-guns, took up his quarters in the Chancellery in the Wilhelmstrasse. The counter-revolution appeared to have triumphed all along the line. But it soon became apparent that the necessary political preparation was lacking to Kapp’s enterprise. The venture might easily have succeeded if it had been proclaimed as the movement of an influential section of the German middle classes. If the leading politicians of the middle classes, or at all events of the Nationalist Party and the People’s Party, had headed the revolt, the workers would not have been able to put up any resistance worth speaking of. The army and the police, the home defense service, and the short-service volunteers, in addition to the civil service, would have put themselves at the disposal of the new rulers. It is even possible that the revolt might have received parliamentary sanction with the help of the middle-class and central parties in the National Assembly, and that a new and purely middle-class conservative government might have been formed.

d2y00216 Demonstration in Berlin against the putsch. The caption reads- "A quarter million participants"

Once again it was Bavaria that provided a clever and purposeful counter-revolution, just as it had in the earlier part of the revolution given the decisive example. Simultaneously with Kapp’s enterprise in Berlin, Hoffmann, the Social Democratic Prime Minister in Munich, was forced by a move on the part of the army officers to resign. In Munich the supporters of the new movement had assured themselves of the sympathies of all the middle-class parties in the Diet. As a sequel to the military revolt, therefore, the Diet in a perfectly legal manner elected a new and purely middle-class government. A well-known conservative civil servant named von Hahr became Premier.

Meanwhile it was soon found in Berlin that Kapp’s following consisted of none but a small group of military conspirators. The broad masses of the middle classes and also the middle-class parties regarded Kapp with distrust or, at most, were willing to wait and see. It was significant that the officials of the Berlin ministries did not recognize the Kapp government, met it with passive resistance, and thus from the very beginning paralyzed the central authority of the government. The working classes throughout Germany joined in a general strike in answer to the Kapp Putsch, and carried it through with remarkable unanimity and accord.

In Berlin sat Kapp surrounded by a few thousand soldiers from the Baltic states as though he were sitting on a powder-barrel in the midst of a hostile population of millions. The attitude of the army to the Kapp Putsch was not uniform. While a number of officers and certain regiments, especially to the east of the Elbe, openly declared themselves in favor of Kapp, others remained neutral; and others again were loyal to the constitutional government. In certain regiments in which there were still traces of democratic traditions, the non-commissioned officers and men actually arrested their pro-Kapp officers.

In the industrial district of Rhenish-Westphalia the Kapp Putsch led to a great proletarian rising. The workers rose without distinction of party, acquired weapons, attacked and drove out the pro-Kapp Free Corps. In Central Germany, too, and in Thuringia open fighting occurred between armed workmen and pro-Kapp troops. Nowhere west of the Elbe and in southern Germany did Kapp achieve any success worth mentioning. For even the new Bavarian government went its own way, took care not to be compromised by association with the Kapp faction, and protested its loyalty to the Reich constitution.

Politically, Germany was split into five sections by the Kapp Putsch. Firstly, the lands east of the Elbe, where Kapp on the whole had a majority, although the general strike greatly embarrassed the Kapp government. Secondly, the districts where the old government was popular — above all, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse and the North Sea coastal districts. Thirdly, the scene of the successful proletarian rising in the Rhineland and Westphalia. Fourthly, Bavaria with its individual development. Fifthly, and lastly, the Central German districts in which none of the warring factions held a clear majority, but pro-Kapp troops, revolutionary workmen, and adherents of the legitimate republican government strove for the mastery.

47308 1920_kapp-putsch_3-data Kapp-Putsch, Panzerfahrzeug, Berlin

The ascendancy which the army and the middle classes had gradually regained in the republic was seriously endangered by Kapp’s premature rebellion. For the middle classes and the troops were divided into two camps by their division of opinion over Kapp, and were thus to some extent paralyzed. On the other hand, a great wave of martial ardor and of the desire for unity swept over the working classes. The Majority Socialist workers now wished for the removal of Noske and Heine, and for an alliance with the USPD. Even the Christian workers were prepared to join a block for the defense of democracy and against the old military powers. Thus the forces ranged against the Kapp Putsch were for the most part not the adherents of the Weimar Republic and of the Ebert-Noske policy, but the advocates of a proletarian revolution of which the aim was to turn the ebbing tide of the revolution and to continue the work of 9 November.

It took only four days to dispatch the so-called Kapp government in Berlin. When unfavorable tidings came in from most parts of the Reich, Kapp despaired of the success of his undertaking, and on 17 March he announced his resignation. The question then arose as to who was to be his successor. The mass of the workers did not wish for a return to the discredited Weimar regime which had permitted of a coup d’état like that of Kapp being made; but they wanted a new political configuration in which the socialist working classes would have a decisive voice. Above all, it was the leaders of the trade unions with the Majority Socialist Legien at their head who, above all others, regarded such an issue to the Kapp affair as essential. Legien wished to replace the Weimar coalition by a German labor government supported by the SPD, the USPD, the free and the Christian trade unions. Noske’s following had been so weakened by what had happened in the SPD that it could not have opposed such a course. And the army was so disintegrated by the putsch, especially since the defeat of Kapp, that it would not have been capable of any united action against a labor government.

A labor government of this description, which would have been quite feasible at the time, might perhaps have introduced a truly democratic spirit into the army and administration, and thus have arrested the retrogressive course of the revolution.[1] The failure of the project for a labor government was due less to the SPD than to the doctrinaire obstinacy displayed by the left wing of the USPD, especially that of Däumig, who was the most influential man in its Berlin party organization. Since the USPD refused cooperation, nothing remained to the SPD but to form another coalition government on the old model. The Chancellor, Bauer, the Reichswehr Minister, Noske, and the Prussian Minister for the Interior, Heine, were indeed obliged to retire. Hermann Müller became Chancellor, the Democrat Gessler took over the Reichswehr Ministry. The new government made all kinds of promises to the trade unions to punish severely all who had been implicated in the Kapp Putsch, and to make serious efforts to democratize the army and the administration. The demands of the trade unions were set forth in lengthy memoranda. Since, however, the new coalition government upon the old model was backed by no new force, everything remained on the whole as it was before. The working class had once more demonstrated in these March days that it could strike in unison and bear arms for its ideals. But the socialist proletariat was not capable of rebuilding Germany politically, and thus the Kapp Putsch really ended with the defeat, not of the army, but of the working classes.

The Hermann Müller government was at once accepted almost all over Germany. The military and administrative services were quickly reorganized. Only in the Ruhr there existed a utopian minority of workers who refused to submit to the new circumstances and wanted to carry on the struggle. The government sent its volunteer troops against the rebellious minority of miners quite in the old style. The generals, who had regained their influence, sent several well-known Kapp battalions, who had “returned to the constitutional fold,” to the Ruhr. At the beginning of April the last traces of the rising were suppressed with peculiar relentlessness. That was the army’s revenge for the defeat of the Free Corps in March. This termination to the anti-Kapp revolt of the workers in the Ruhr showed very clearly the new distribution of power in Germany.

Zentralbild Sonderred.Halle  13.8.1958 III. Pioniertreffen in Halle Junge Pioniere aus dem Bezik Erfurt nutzen ihren Ruhetag  Der vierte Tag, der 13.8.58, des Friedensmarsches der Th‰lmann-Pioniere nach Halle war f¸r die jungen Festteilnehmer vieler Bezirke Ruhetag. Diesen benuzten die Pioniere des Bezirkes Erfurt, die ihre Quartiere in Frankenleben, Kreis Merseburg, bezogen hatten, das volkseigene Stahlwerk Frankleben und das Denkmal der gefallenen M‰rzk‰mpfer von Launa-Krˆllwitz zu besichtigen.  UBz: Zwei Pioniere des Kreises Weimar-Land halten Ehrenwacht am Denkmal auf dem G‰nseanger von Leuna-Krˆllwitz.

It was now impossible to postpone the Reichstag elections any longer. The polling took place on 6 June. The provinces of East Prussia, Upper Silesia and Schleswig-Holstein, in which plebiscites had still to be taken according to the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, did not vote on this occasion. The election resulted in the complete defeat of the Weimar parties. Of the Socialists, the SPD had only five million six hundred thousand votes, and had lost about half its adherents in eighteen months; the USPD obtained four million nine hundred thousand votes; and the KPD four hundred thousand. Of the middle-class parties the Nationalists and the People’s Party together obtained seven million three hundred thousand votes, and the Democrats only two million two hundred thousand. The Bavarian People’s Party, in which the conservative counter-revolutionary tendency now predominated, polled one million two hundred thousand votes, and the Center three million five hundred thousand. Within the middle classes, too, the adherents of the democratic republic had forfeited half their following compared with the elections to the National Assembly.

The elections were a catastrophe for the Weimar Republic. Since no important change had resulted from the Kapp Putsch, the events of the year 1919 led to their logical conclusion. The SPD was so weakened by its defeat at the polls that it could no longer maintain the leadership in the Reich. The Majority Socialist ministers left the government. President Ebert remained in office, but adapted himself in strictly constitutional fashion to the new middle-class governments.

On 25 July, Fehrenbach, a Center deputy, formed a new and purely middle-class government. In so far as the November Revolution had tried to set up a democracy under the leadership of the socialist working class, it had by the summer of 1920 failed, and failed finally.

Notes


1. On the question of the labor government during the Kapp Putsch: Däumig at a meeting of the Berlin industrial councils on 23 March 1920 (compare the account in the Freiheit of 24 March) said: “Legien has during the last few days made an attempt to do away with the Bauer — Noske government, but, be it noted, only with the persons. The principles of middle-class democracy and of trade unionism were not attacked in any way. Legien, united with the members of the Free Trade Union Association and the German Union of Civil Servants, also got in touch with the Independent Party in order to negotiate with it about the points he had formulated. The Independent Socialist Party for its part made much more far-reaching demands and did not express any willingness to cooperate with the compromised right-wing Socialist Party. Thereupon Legien went to the coalition parties.” In the course of his speech Däumig stated that the idea of a socialist labor government had fallen to the ground. After Däumig, Pieck spoke for the KPD. He said, amongst other things: “The present situation is not ripe for a soviet republic, but for a labor government. As revolutionary workers, we should regard a purely labour government as exceedingly desirable. It could, of course, be no more than a transitory phenomenon…The USPD has rejected the labor government and thus failed to look after the interests of the proletariat at the politically favorable moment.” (The report notes at this point: “Violent dissent and applause.”) A well-informed member of the KPD under the name “Spartakus” gave a description of the Kapp Putsch in the periodical Die Kommunistische Internationale, No 10 (1920). The writer says, inter alia (p 160):Such was the situation in Berlin when after six days of a general strike the Kapp government found itself at the end of its resources, when Kapp himself resigned, and the Association of Trade Unions under the leadership of Legien was forced by the members of the trade unions to make demands of the Ebert government which led to a breach with the middle-class government. There was a possibility that the formation of a labor government to the exclusion of the middle classes might have been extorted from the Ebert — Bauer government by pertinacity and under the threat of an extension of the general strike. Legien conducted negotiations with the USPD to induce them to enter the government. The right wing of the Independents was inclined to agree to…this suggestion…The attitude of the left wing to this question depended upon the attitude that the KPD would assume in the event of Legien’s proposal being adopted. Since the left wing of the USPD has in fact a great influence within the whole party, it really depended on Däumig and others whether men like Hilferding and Crispien did or did not accept Legien’s suggestion. When our representatives among the strike-leaders (of the general strike in Berlin) came unofficially to hear of this question, they said something to the effect that naturally a labor government excluding the middle classes would be preferable to them than a return to the old middle-class — Socialist coalition, which despite the change of personnel must in effect be the same Noske regime.” Following on this, the Central Committee of the KPD passed a resolution on 21 March, assuring a future labor government composed of both Socialist parties a “fair opposition.” That is to say, that the Communists would not under a purely Socialist government make further preparations for an armed revolt, but confine themselves to peaceful propaganda for their views. At this time the SPD under Legien’s leadership, the right wing of the USPD and even the KPD were in favor of a labor government. The plan came to nothing, owing to the opposition of the left USPD led by Däumig. This is the explanation of Pieck’s attack on Däumig at the Berlin meeting of the industrial councils (see above). The official biography of Legien — Leipart, Carl Legien, ein Gedenkbuch (Berlin, 1929) — says something about Legien’s part in the Kapp Putsch (p 116 et seq), but unfortunately is silent upon the important question of the labor government.


Trotsky’s Italian connection: Gramsci or Bordiga?

$
0
0

.
Since the rediscovery of Antonio Gramsci’s Prison Notebooks after World War II, there have been a number of attempts to adapt their heavily-coded theoretical content to various political projects. Particularly during the period of the New Left, Gramsci was interpreted and reinterpreted ad nauseam. Gradualists of a social-democratic stripe tried to fit the (allegedly anti-Leninist) “war of position” to their own frameworks. Figures like Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe deploy the ubiquitous Gramscian buzzword of “hegemony” for their postmodernist, post-Marxist populism. Finally, theorists such as Christine Buci-Glucksmann and Peter D. Thomas have sought to reconcile Gramsci with a more classically Leninist program in light of critiques by Louis Althusser in France and Perry Anderson in England.

Gramsci = Trotsky?

.
Trotskyists during the 1960s down to the present have followed suit. Even the Spartacist League, known for their strict orthodoxy, nodded approvingly toward a document by Cliff Slaughter from 1960 in which he relied heavily on Gramsci’s The Modern Prince. Just how compatible are Trotsky’s politics with those of Gramsci, though? Certainly during their political careers, they found themselves on opposite ends of the spectrum within international communism. Not only did Gramsci support Trotsky’s expulsion from the Russian party in 1925 and 1926, but he continued to lambaste Bronshtein during the period of his imprisonment. Paolo Casciola, an Italian Trotskyist, explains the continued differences between Gramsci and Trotsky from 1926 up through the 1930s in his rebuttal to the “turncoat” Alfonso Leonetti:

Gramsci or Trotsky?

[I]t would be useful to pause for a while on the fable of the “identity of views” between Trotsky and Gramsci. Such a fable is based on the fact that Gramsci “broke” with Stalinism during his prison years, after the “turn of 1930″ — a turn which Leonetti had continuously championed. This is a question with which we shall deal in future. What we want to emphasize here is that Leonetti used such an ostensible “identity” as a voucher to justify politically his adherence to Gramscism and Togliattism. It was a rather dubious historico-political operation which was made easier by the cooperation of a series of “Trotskyist” intellectuals and unscrupulous “historians of the workers’ movement.” As a matter of fact, Gramsci’s “moral break” with Stalinism was only a temporary disagreement with the “Third Period” policy, and he was reabsorbed after the Popular Front counter-turn of 1935. If this be the case, then certain things said in the article which Tresso wrote after Gramsci’s death seem somewhat rash. But whereas Tresso could not know anything about Gramsci’s evolution during the 11 years of his imprisonment, Leonetti was able to read several testimonies on that period. But he used them in his own unfortunate way.

To Leonetti, the “identity of views” of Gramsci and Trotsky lies above all in their ostensibly identical assessment of the “period of transition” from Fascism to Communism, as well as in the fact that they both raised the slogan of a constituent assembly for Italy. But this is a superficial and utterly false equation. As a matter of fact, whereas Trotsky emphasized that the “democratic transition” was only one possible variant of the post-Fascist development — linked to and dependent upon the revolutionary awakening of the working class — Gramsci saw such an event as “the most likely one,” and, on this basis, put forward the slogan of a constituent assembly within the framework of a gradualist, Menshevik, Popular Front perspective. It is not by chance that, a few days before his death, Gramsci let the PCd’I know that “the Popular Front in Italy is the constituent assembly.” The Stalinist continuity between Gramsci and Togliatti was thus re-established, after the interlude of the “Third Period.” On the other hand, the lack of identity between the views of Trotsky and Gramsci is shown by several other bits of evidence. According to the testimony of Bruno Tosin, whilst opposing the “turn of 1930″ not only did Gramsci hold that the party had been right to expel the Trotskyist oppositionists, but in his Prison Notebooks he criticizes Trotsky every time he mentions him, ever inclined to legitimize the continuity from Lenin to Stalin.

I don’t irrationally hate Gramsci. For the most part I prefer his “liberal” Marxist phase from 1916-1920, when he was closer to Gobetti, and then his early Leninism in alliance with Bordiga. After 1923, Gramsci basically took his orders from Moscow, following all the zigzags coming out of the Kremlin. Had he not been imprisoned, I suspect he would have eventually become a more theoretically sophisticated version of Togliatti. Some of his historical and philosophical reflections are interesting, but politically he’s the pits.

Personally, it’s my opinion that the effort to sanitize Gramsci’s Dmitrovian popfrontism, in order to render them compatible with Trotsky’s views, owes to the intellectual celebrity of the former after World War II. And this celebrity is in turn largely a product of the PCI’s nonstop promotion of Gramsci since 1945. The definitive study of this historiographical shift is John Chiaradia’s “Amadeo Bordiga and the Myth of Antonio Gramsci.” Chiaradia contends that many of the same tactics that were used to oust Trotsky from the Russian party were used to oust Bordiga from the Italian party.

This seems to be borne out by the documentary evidence. If you read anything written by communists about the Italian party before 1945, Gramsci’s name barely even appears. By contrast, Bordiga’s name appears repeatedly. In Franz Borkenau’s World Communism, Trotsky’s writings, Arthur Rosenberg’s books, Victor Serge’s Memoirs of a Revolutionary, Ignazio Silone’s section of The God that Failed, Bordiga is mentioned over and over. Like I said, after WWII he was mostly just known as Gramsci’s justly vanquished opponent.

Trotsky on Bordiga

.
In all his published works and correspondence, the only reference Trotsky made to Gramsci came in Fascism: What It Is and How to Fight it, published in 1931. He explained that Italian comrades informed him that “with the sole exception of Gramsci, the Communist Party would not even allow for the possibility of the fascists’ seizing power.” Appreciative enough, I suppose. The source of this information, the “Italian comrades” to which Trotsky alluded, can be easily guessed, however. Leonetti, the erstwhile Left Oppositionist who later defected to Stalinism — dealt with above by Casciola — corresponded with Bronshtein about Italian fascism frequently during those years. He remained a loyal Gramscian throughout every phase of his career, and was one of the few prior to 1945 who recalled Gramsci’s name. Deeply resentful toward Bordiga, Leonetti even wrote an article trying to convince Trotsky that the source of Stalin’s Third Period doctrine of “social fascism” was the communist left. From the reply Trotsky sent to Souzo (pen name of Leonetti), it would seem the former was briefly swayed:

February 14, 1932

Dear Comrade Souzo:

I have received your article on the Bordigists, which I find very good and extremely useful, especially the paragraph that shows Bordiga to be the father of the theory of social fascism.

Apart from this, Trotsky was overwhelmingly positive regarding Bordiga’s role within the Italian party. In 1929, he wrote a letter to the editorial board of the journal Prometeo, in which he praised “the living, muscular, and full-blooded revolutionary thought of Amadeo Bordiga.” He underscored his longstanding respect for and personal acquaintance with the man who had inspired their movement: “I have become acquainted with the pamphlet ‘Platform of the Left,’ which you issued back in 1926 but which has only just now reached me. Similarly, I have read the letter you addressed to me in issue number 20 of Prometeo and some of the leading articles in your paper, which enabled me to renew, after a long interruption, my fairly good knowledge of the Italian language. These documents, along with my acquaintance with the articles and speeches of Comrade Bordiga — not to mention my personal acquaintance with him — permit me to judge to a certain extent your basic views as well as the degree of agreement there is between us.”

Bordiga, like Gramsci, was imprisoned at the time. Following his release in 1930, Togliatti had Bordiga expelled on grounds of alleged “Trotskyism.” Trotsky evidently took note of this fact. Referring to himself in the third person, he wrote: “In the Italian party, serious shifts have taken place recently. You know about the expulsion from the party, on charges of solidarity with Trotsky, of Comrade Bordiga, who recently returned from exile. Our Italian comrades have written us that Bordiga, having acquainted himself with our latest publications, did indeed make a statement, it seems, about his agreement with our views.” Meanwhile, Bordiga was placed under house arrest, forced into early retirement by the fascist government. He would only return to politics in 1944, under very different circumstances.

Still, Trotsky hoped to enlist Prometeo’s support against Stalinism. Even after relations soured between Prometeo and the Italian Left Opposition in the early 1930s, Trotsky was careful to distinguish Bordiga’s thoughts from those of his self-proclaimed followers. In his “Critical Remarks on Prometeo’s Resolution,” he wrote:

[T]he Bordigists evince an inverse parliamentary cretinism by apparently c0mpletely reducing the problem of democracy to the question of the national assembly and of parliament in general. But even within the limits of the parliatuentary frame of reference they are completely in the wrong. Their antidemocratic metaphysics inevitably implies the tactic of boycotting parliament. Comrade Bordiga took this stand at the time of the Second Congress, but later he departed from it. (I think in general that in polemic one should strictly distinguish Bordiga from the Bordigists. We do not know his views, since the conditions in which he exists deprive him of the opportunity of expressing himself. But we believe that Bordiga would hardly take responsibility for the parody-like views of the group of his pupils concerned.)

His patience wearing thin, Trotsky addressed another letter to the Bordigists indicating that their professed allegiance to Bordiga, a figure for whom he had a great deal of respect, would not be enough for him to overlook his substantial disagreements with their position. “Quite obviously, the conditions in which Comrade Bordiga, the authoritative leader of your faction, found himself might have explained for a while the dilatory character of your position (without, of course, reducing its harmful aspects),” wrote Trotsky. “In replying to your ‘Open Letter,’ I took this very important, even if personal, circumstance fully into account. I am sufficiently acquainted with Comrade Bordiga, and value him highly enough, to understand the exceptional role he plays in the life of your faction. But, as you will undoubtedly grant yourselves, this consideration cannot cover all the others.”

Bordiga on Trotsky

.
For his part, Bordiga often found himself on the same side of the barricades as Trotsky. Bordiga not only supported the Peace of Brest-Litovsk, siding with Lenin and Trotsky in their opposition to Bukharin and the Russian communist left, but accepted virtually all of Lenin’s criticisms of his program in “Left-Wing” Communism: An Infantile Disorder. In the 1920s, Bordiga once again supported Trotsky in the struggle against Stalin’s policy of “socialism in one country.” There were certainly important differences between Trotsky and Bordiga in their respective views, but I do think it is significant that the latter favored the former for the leadership position within Russia, and that he was the only major figure within Italy to defend Trotsky after he was expelled from the party.

After the last-ditch effort to stage a revolution in Germany failed in 1923, Bordiga turned to Trotsky seeking information about what had happened. In 1926, trying to make sense of the situation, he wrote to his Russian colleague:

Moscow, 2 March 1926

Dear comrade Trotsky,

At the current enlarged Executive, during a meeting of the delegation of the Italian section with comrade Stalin, certain questions were posed about your preface to the book The Lessons of October and about your criticisms of the October 1923 events in Germany. Comrade Stalin argued that there was a contradiction in your attitude to this po attitude to this point.

To avoid the risk of quoting comrade Stalin’s words with the slightest inaccuracy, I will refer to the formulation of this same observation which is contained in a written text, i.e. the article by comrade Kusinen published in the French edition of International Correspondence, no 82, 17 December 1924. This article was published in Italian during the discussion for our IIIrd Congress (Unita, 31 August 1925). Here it is argued that:

  • before October 1923 you supported the Brandler group and you accepted the line decided on by the leading organs of the CI for the action in Germany;
  • in January 1924, in the theses drawn up with comrade Radek, you affirmed that the German party should not have launched the struggle in October;
  • it was only in September 1924 that you formulated your criticism of the errors of the KPD and the CI, which resulted in a failure to seize the most favorable moment for the struggle in Germany.

With regard to these supposed contradictions, I polemicized wittions, I polemicized with comrade Kusinen in an article which appeared in Unita in October, basing myself on the elements that were known to me. But you alone can throw full light on the question, and I ask you to do this through a brief note of information that I will use for personal instruction. It would only be with the authorization of the party organs that I would in the future use this to examine the problem in the press.

With communist greetings,
Amadeo Bordiga

Trotsky responded thus:

Dear comrade Bordiga

The exposition of the facts that you have provided is no doubt based on some obvious misunderstandings, which, once we have the documents to hand, can be dissipated without difficulty.

  • During the course of autumn 1923, I openly criticised the Central Committee led by comrade Brandler. On several occasions I had to officially express my concern that the CC would be un that the CC would be unable to lead the German proletariat to the conquest of power. This affirmation was noted in an official document of the party. Several times, I had the occasion – in speaking with or about Brandler – to say that he had not understood the specific character of the revolutionary situation, to say that he was mixing up the revolution with an armed insurrection, that he was waiting fatalistically for the development of events rather than going to meet them, etc etc…
  • It is true that I opposed being mandated to work together with Brandler and Ruth Fischer because in such a period of struggle within the Central Committee this could have led to a complete defeat, all the more so because, in the essentials, i.e. with regard to the revolution and its stages, Ruth Fischer’s position was full of the same social democratic fatalism. She had not understood that in such a period, a few weeks can be decisive for several years, and even for decades. I considered it necessary to support the existing Central Committee, to exert pressure on it, to insist that the comrades taking part in it act with the firmness demanded by their mandate, etc. No one at that time thought that it was necessary to replace Brandler and I did not make this proposal.
  • When in June 1924 Brandler came to Moscow and said that he was more optimistic about the development of the situation than during the events of the previous autumn, it became even clearer for me that Brandler had not understood this particular combination of conditions which creates a revolutionary situation. I said to him that he did not know how to distinguish the future of a revolution from its end. “Last autumn, the revolution was staring you in the face; you let the moment pass. Now, the revolution has turned its back on you, but you think that it’s coming towards you.” While I was fully convinced that in the autumn of 1923 the German party had let the decisive moment pass – as has been verified in reality – after June 1924, I was not in favor of the left carrying out a policy based on the assumption that the insurrection was still on the agenda. I explained this in a series of articles and speeches in which I tried to demonstrate that the revolutionary situation had already passed, that there would inevitably be a reflux in the revolution, that in the immediate future the Communist Party would inevitably lose influence, that the bourgeoisie would use the reflux to strengthen itself economically, that American capital would exploit this strengthening of the bourgeois regime through a wide-scale intervention in Europe around the slogans of “normalization,” “peace,” etc. In such periods, I underlined, the general revolutionary perspective is a strategic and not a tactical one.
  • I gave my support to comrade Radek’s June theses by telephone. I did not take part in drawing up these theses: I was ill. I gave my signature because they contained the affirmation that the German party had let the revolutionary situation pass it by, and that in Germany we were entering a phase not of immediate offensive but of defense and preparation. For me this was the decisive element.
  • The affirmation that I claimed that the German party would not lead the proletariat to the insurrection is false from start to finish. My main accusation against Brandler’s CC was that he was unable to keep up with events by placing the party at the head of the popular masses for the armed insurrection in the period August-October.
  • I said and wrote that since the party had, through its fatalism, lost the rhythm of the events, it was too late to give the signal for the armed insurrection: the insurrection: the military had used the time lost to the revolution to occupy the important positions, and, above all, it was clear that the mass movement was in retreat. It is here that we see the specific and original character of the revolutionary situation, which can change radically in the space of one or two months. Lenin did not say in vain in September/October 1917 that it was “now or never“, i.e. “the same revolutionary situation never repeats itself”.
  • If in January 1924, for reasons of illness, I did not take part in the work of the Comintern, it’s quite true that I did oppose what was put forward by Brandler in the Central Committee. It was my opinion that Brandler had paid dearly for the practical experience so necessary for a revolutionary leader. In this sense, I would certainly have defended the opinion that Brandler should stay in the CC had I not been outside Moscow at the time. Furthermore, I had little confidence in Maslow. On the basis of discussions I had with him, I considered that he shared all the faults of Brandler’s positions with regard to the problems of the revolution, without having Brandler’s good qualities, i.e. his serious and conscientious spirit. Independently of whether or not I was mistaken in th I was mistaken in this evaluation of Maslow, in indirect relation with the evaluation of the revolutionary situation in autumn 1923…

One of the main experiences of the German insurrection was the fact that at the decisive moment, upon which, as I have said, the long-term outcome of the revolution depended, and in all the Communist Parties, a social democratic regression was, to a greater or lesser extent, inevitable. In our revolution, thanks to the whole past of the party and to the exemplary role played by Lenin, this regression was kept to a minimum; and this despite the fact that at certain moments the success of the party in the struggle was put into danger. It seemed to me, and seems all the more so now, that these social democratic regressions are unavoidable at decisive moments in the European Communist Parties, which are younger and less tempered. This point of view should enable us to evaluate the work of the party, its experience, its offensive, its retreats in all stages of the preparation for the seizure ofon for the seizure of power. By basing ourselves on this experience the leading cadres of the party can be selected.

Comradely greetings,
L Trotsky

Upon receiving Trotsky’s response, Bordiga began to compose a text outlining his own position vis-à-vis the crisis in the Russian party. Following Trotsky’s polemical intervention into the debate over revolutionary principles in The Lessons of October (published November 1924), a triumvirate of Old Bolsheviks formed against him. They accused Trotsky of waiting until Lenin died to reintroduce his pre-Bolshevik, anti-Leninist political perspective. In the meantime, Bordiga wrote to his close comrade and collaborator, Karl Korsch. He indicated to Korsch, who’d already begun drifting toward councilism, that he was in solidarity with Trotsky.

“I am…enclosing some notes regarding our position on questions pertaining to the Russian left,” wrote Bordiga. “It is interesting that we see things differently: you who used to be highly suspicious of Trotsky have immediately subscribed to the program of unconditional solidarity with the Russian opposition, betting on Trotsky rather than on Zinoviev (a preference I share).” He stated he would not contest the Russian communist party’s state policy “as long as it remained on terrain corresponding to two documents, Lenin’s speech on the Tax in Kind and Trotsky’s report to the 4th World Congress.” Moreover, Bordiga made clear to Korsch that he considered the explanation Trotsky provided about his stance on the failed German Revolution to be adequate. “Trotsky’s positions on the German question of 1923 are satisfactory, as is his appraisal of the present world situation. The same cannot be said of the rectification made by Zinoviev on the questions of the united front and the International Red Union, or on other points which have occasional and contingent value, and place no trust in a tactic that avoids past error.”

Shortly after Bordiga published his tract on “the Trotsky question” in 1925, he was arrested by Mussolini’s government. After he returned from exile in 1930, as mentioned earlier, he was expelled from the party. It would seem that his high esteem for Trotsky as a revolutionary endured the eighteen years in which he removed himself from political discourse. Just as Trotsky differentiated between Bordiga and the Bordigists, Bordiga distinguished Trotsky from the Trotskyists. In his “Fundamentals of Revolutionary Communism,” from 1957, he wrote: “In Italy, France, and elsewhere there are many of these groups which have totally dissipated the first proletarian reactions against the terrible sense of disillusionment arising from the distortions and decompositions of Stalinism; from the opportunist plague which killed off Lenin’s Third International. One of these groups is linked to Trotskyism, but in fact fails to appreciate that Trotsky always condemned Stalin for deviating from Marx.”

Like Trotsky, he continued to defend revolutionary history from “the Stalinist school of falsification”: “One of the many falsifications of Stalin’s Brief History of the Communist Party was to lump Trotsky in together with these ‘workerists’ simply because he happened to be engaged in a debate regarding the tasks of the trade unions. In fact, Trotsky was completely on Lenin’s side at that stage, and the genuinely Marxist proposal he made was that trade unions should be absolutely subordinated to the proletarian state and party (a party which, back in 1921, he did not consider — and neither did we — as having degenerated).”

There is no sense in equating Trotsky’s positions with those of Bordiga, or even in exaggerating their closeness. However, it ought to be said that Trotsky and Bordiga were closer to one another than Trotskyism and Bordigism ever were. Closer, for that matter, than Trotsky was to “Trotskyism,” or Bordiga to “Bordigism.”

We conclude with Bordiga’s excellent statement on “the Trotsky question,” from February 1925.

Amadeo_Bordiga

The Trotsky question

Amadeo Bordiga
L’Unità
February 1925
.

 

.

The discussion, which was recently concluded with the measures adopted by the EC and the Control Commission of the Communist Party of Russia against Comrade Trotsky, was based exclusively on the preface written by Trotsky to the third volume of his book Writings from 1917 (published in Russian a few months ago), dated 15 September, 1924.

The discussion on the economic policy and the internal life of the party in Russia which had previously put Trotsky in opposition to the CC, was completed by the decisions of XIIIth Congress of the party and Vth Congress of the International; Trotsky did not reopen it. In the present polemic, other texts are referred to, like the speech to the Congress of veterinary surgeons and the brochure On Lenin; but the first dates from July 28 and had not raised any polemic at that time, when the delegations of the Vth Congress were still present in Moscow; the second, written well before, had been widely quoted in the communist press of all the countries without meeting the least objection from any party organs.

The text of the preface around which the discussion is raging is not known to the Italian comrades. The international communist press did not receive it, and consequently, not having this text nor any other by Trotsky to support these theses, it published only articles against this preface. The article by the editorial board of Pravda which at the end of October opened the polemic against Trotsky was published in appendix by L´Unità. As for the preface itself, a summary of it appeared in Italian in Critica Fascista 2 and 3 of January 15 and February 1 of this year, and the beginning was reproduced by L’Avanti! of January 30. The complete preface was published in French in the Cahiers du bolchevisme, the review of the French Communist party ,  5 & 6 of December 19 & 26, 1924.

The preface of 1917 deals with the lessons of the Russian October from the point of view of the role of the revolutionary party relative to its historical task in the final struggle for the conquest of power. Recent events in international politics posed the following problem: objective historical conditions for the conquest of power by the proletariat being realized, namely the instability of the regime and apparatus of the bourgeois State, the élan of the masses towards struggle, the orientation of broad proletarian layers towards the Communist party, how can we ensure ourselves that this answers the necessities of the battle, just as the Russian party responded in October 1917, under Lenin’s leadership?

Trotsky presents the question in the following manner: experience teaches us that at the moment of the supreme struggle two currents tend to be formed in the Communist party; one which understands the possibility of armed insurrection or the need for not delaying it; and another which, at the last moment, under the pretext that the situation is  not ripe; that the relationship of forces is not favorable, propose the suspension of the action and assume a non-revolutionary and Menshevik position in practice.

In 1923 the latter tendency was on top in Bulgaria at the time of Tsankov’s coup d’état, and in October in Germany, where it determined the abandonment of the struggle which could have brought us success. In 1917, this tendency appeared within the Bolshevik party itself, and if it was beaten it was thanks to Lenin, whose formidable energy imposed on the hesitant the recognition that the situation was revolutionary; and their submission to the supreme order to start the insurrection. We should study the conduct, in 1917, of the right opposition against Lenin in the Bolshevik party and compare it with that of the adversaries of struggle which appeared in our ranks in Germany in 1923 and in other similar cases. The language of those who advocate the suspension of the struggle and their political positions are in both cases so similar that it raises the question as to measures to be taken in the International to make the truly Leninist method prevail in decisive moments, so as not to abort the historic occasions of the revolution.

The most important conclusion which arises, in our opinion, from the efficacious analysis to which Trotsky subjects the preparation and conduct of the October struggle in Russia, is that the hesitations of the right do not arise solely from an error in the evaluation of forces and in the choice of the moment for action, but especially from a true incomprehension of the principle of the revolutionary process in history: it believes that it can use another way than that of the dictatorship of the proletariat for the construction of socialism, which is contrary to the vital content of revolutionary Marxism supported and historically realized by Lenin’s titanic effort.

Indeed, the group of leading comrades of the Bolshevik party which was opposed to Lenin not only sustained that it was still necessary to wait; but it opposed to the Leninist watchwords — Socialist dictatorship of the proletariat, All power to the Soviets, Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly — other formulas, such as a combination of Soviets and a democratic Parliament, a government of “all the socialist parties,” i.e. of a coalition of Communists and Social Democrats, and these, not as transitory tactical expedients, but as the permanent forms of the Russian revolution. Thus two principle conceptions were in opposition: on the one hand, the Soviet dictatorship lead by the communist party, i.e. the proletarian revolution in all its powerful originality and which is in historical dialectical opposition to the bourgeois democratic revolution of Kerensky, which is the Leninist conception; and on the other hand to push leftwards, to deepen and defend against the foreigner the revolution of the people against tsarism, i.e. the success of the bourgeoisie and petite bourgeoisie.

Trotsky, splendid and without equal among those alive in the synthesis of experiences and of revolutionary truths, remarks with finesse that during revolutionary periods the reformists leave the terrain of purely formal socialism, i.e. the perspective of victory for the proletarian class by bourgeois democratic and legal means, for the pure and simple ground of bourgeois democracy while becoming defenders and direct agents of capitalism. In parallel to this a right wing of the revolutionary party will take its place in the vacuum left by the reformists, limiting itself in practice to call for a “true proletarian democracy” or something similar, even though the time has come to proclaim the bankruptcy of all democracies and go over to armed struggle.

This evaluation of the attitude of those Bolsheviks who, thus, abandoned Lenin is undoubtedly very serious, but it follows from Trotsky’s account through quotations, which have not been refuted, of the declarations of the rightists themselves and those of Lenin in response. It is necessary to raise this problem, since we do not have Lenin with us any longer, and since without him, we have lost our October revolution in Berlin, a fact of such international historical significance that it obviates any concern for the tranquility of internal life. Trotsky considers this problem in an identical way to that which the left of the Italian delegation maintained at the 5th Congress: one cannot liquidate the German error by allotting it to the right-wing which lead the German party; it shows us the need for revising the international tactic of the International and to re-examine its mode of internal organization, its way of working and of preparing for the tasks of the revolution.

The divergences in the Bolshevik Party on the eve of the revolution can be understood on the basis of a series of vigorous interventions of Lenin to rectify the line and to eliminate the hesitations. In his letter from Switzerland, Lenin had already undertaken this work. From the moment of his arrival he places himself resolutely against defensism, i.e. against the attitude supported by Pravda, among others, which pressed the workers to continue the war against Germany, to save the revolution. Lenin affirmed that we will only have to defend the revolution when the party of the proletariat, and not the opportunists agents of the bourgeoisie, have come to power.

It is known that the watchword of the Bolshevik party had hitherto been that of the “democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry.” Trotsky does not claim in his text that this formula is false, but that it has failed historically and that Lenin substituted for it a formula equivalent to that of “permanent revolution,” which has been argued at other times by Trotsky and his friends.

Quite to the contrary, Trotsky asserts the accuracy of this formula which the revolutionary genius of Lenin conceived and applied, i.e. as a tactical and agitational slogan to be used before the fall of tsarism. And this is what actually occurred, since after tsarism, we do not have a pure bourgeois parliamentary democracy, but a duality between a weak bourgeois parliamentary State and the Soviets, nascent organs of power of the proletariat and the peasantry.

But from the opening of this phase, where history confirmed the accuracy of the Leninist conception of the revolution, Lenin passes immediately – in the political orientation of party, if not in the external succession of propagandistic formulations — to a more advanced position in preparation for the second and veritable revolution, of the march towards the soviet and socialist dictatorship of the proletariat through armed insurrection, of course always guiding the peasant masses in their struggle for emancipation from the feudal agrarian regime.

Trotsky was insistent on the problem of the incomprehension of the true strategic genius of Lenin by even those who, like so many of our Italian maximalists, are constantly invoking his theory and his practice of the “compromise” and of elastic maneuvers. Lenin maneuvered, but the maneuver never lost sight of the supreme objective. For others, the operation too often becomes the aim in itself and paralyses the possibility of revolutionary action, while in Lenin we see this suppleness giving way to the most implacable rigidity in his desire for the revolution and to destroy its saboteurs and enemies.

Lenin himself, in passages quoted by Trotsky, stigmatizes this incapacity to adapt to new revolutionary situations, and the fact of taking a polemical formulation, essential to the Bolsheviks at the previous time, as the ultimate word in their later policy. It is the grand question of the communist tactic and of its dangers, which we have discussed for years, even outside of the sphere of the conclusions necessary to draw to prevent all dangerous sleight-of-hand corruption of the real revolutionary contents of Lenin’s instructions.

Trotsky explains why for Lenin it has always been clear that after having passed through the transitional stage of the democratic dictatorship, i.e. by a petit-bourgeois phase, the Russian revolution would arrive at the phase of integral communist dictatorship, even before the advent of socialism in the Occident. When they recommended a coalition workers’ government and condemned the insurrectionary struggle, the rightists showed that they had adopted the Menshevik position according to which, even after having been liberated from tsarism, Russia had to await the victory of the socialist revolution in other countries before going beyond the forms of bourgeois democracy. In his preface Trotsky vigorously condemns this very characteristic error of anti-Leninism.

These questions were heatedly discussed by the party at the time of the April 1917 conference. From this moment on Lenin never ceases to forcefully reaffirm the perspective of the seizure of power. He denounces parliamentary deceit, later he castigates as «shameful» the decision of the party to take part in the “pre Parliament”– the provisional democratic assembly convened while waiting for the elections to the Constituent Assembly. After July, while following the evolution of the orientation of the masses with the greatest attention, and while understanding the need for a self imposed waiting period after the “test” and reconnaissance of the failure of the insurrection missed in the same month, he warns his comrades against the trap of Soviet legalism.

In other words, he says that one should not bind ones hands by pushing back the fight, not only to the convocation of the Constituent Assembly, but also to that of the second Congress of Soviets and to the the decisions of its majority which could continue to be in opportunist hands after the hour had sounded for the armed overthrow of the democratic government. It is known that at a certain time he declared that he would lead the party to power even without the Soviets, the reason for which certain rightists accused him of being “Blanquist.”

And Trotsky (upon whom the imbecilic champions of democracy would like to base themselves against the dictatorial theses of the Bolsheviks) once again instructs the European comrades not to make a fetish of majority, including within the Soviets: our Great Elector is the rifle in the hands of the insurgent worker, who does not dream of depositing a paper ballot but of striking the enemy.

That is not opposed to the Leninist conception of the need for having the masses on our side and the impossibility of substituting their revolutionary action by that of a handful of resolute men. But, when we have the masses with us, it is necessary, and this is the argument under discussion here, that a party or a military leadership does not prevent their struggle by diversions or hesitations. We can await the masses, and this is our duty, but the party cannot make the masses wait, under penalty of causing defeat. Here is the method of formulating the terrible problem which weighs upon us, since the bourgeoisie, in full crisis, still remains untoppled.

On October 10, 1917 the Central committee of the Bolshevik party decides on the insurrection. Lenin has won.

But the decision is not unanimous. The following day the dissidents send a letter to the principal party organizations on “the actual situation” which denounces the decisions of the majority, declares the insurrection impossible and defeat certain. On October 18 they write a new letter against the decision of the party. But on October 25 the insurrection is victorious and the Soviet government installed in Petrograd. On November 4, after the victory, the opponents of Lenin resign from the Central Committee to have the freedom to appeal to the party to support their theses: that one should not, as Lenin sustains, constitute a government of the party, but to make use of the power conquered to form a government of all the Soviet parties, i.e. with the Right Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries represented in the Soviets. It is also necessary to convene the Constituent Assembly and to let it function; these positions are defended including in the Central Committee, until the line of Lenin prevailed which the Constituent Assembly is say dispersed by the red guards.

The history of these dissensions is quite short. The comrades in question “recognized their error.” This is as it should be and it is not a question of cuffing these comrades around a bit. But it was inevitable that they would recognize their error, faced with the victory of the revolution and its consolidation — unless they were to pass directly into the camp of the counter-revolution. There remains the problem in all its gravity which flows from this simple observation: if Lenin had been in a minority in the Central Committee, if the insurrection had failed because mistrust towards it became widespread on account of of the initial distrust of a section of its leaders, those would have held exactly the same discourse which the comrades in charge of the leadership of the German Party had at the time of the crisis of October 1923. What Lenin managed to conjure up through entreaty in Russia, the International could not conjure in Germany. In these conditions, if the International wants to really live in the tradition of Lenin, it must make certain that it doesn’t find itself in this situation again: history is not generous with revolutionary occasions, and to allow them to pass by involves painful consequences which we all know about and all suffer from.

The comrades should take into account that the contents of the debate are not to be found entirely in the reasons advanced in the public motion which blames Trotsky, nor in the polemical arguments repeated and summarized by the author of articles signed A.P. Concerning comrade Trotsky, the problems which were raised come back to what I have set forth; but it is true that the other side has responded by putting the political activity undertaken by the comrade Trotsky throughout his life on trial. There is talk of a “Trotskyism” which has existed continuously against Leninism from 1903 until today, and which always existed in the form of a rightist struggle against the positions of the Bolshevik party. This is how disagreements are poisoned, but worse, this diverted the discussion by eluding the vital problem posed by Trotsky in the passages on which we have reported.

I will say only a few words on the charges hurled against Trotsky coming out of the questions raised in his foreword.

There was a Trotskyism between 1903 and 1917; it was in fact an attitude of centrism halfway between the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks, rather confused and theoretically doubtful, oscillating in practice from right to left, and which was duly fought by Lenin without too much discomfiture, as was his habit vis-à-vis his opponents. In none of his writings from 1917 onwards, that is to say since his adhesion to the Bolshevik party, did Trotsky return to assert or defend his positions of that epoch. He recognizes them as erroneous: in his last letter to the Central committee he says that he “regards Trotskyism as a tendency which disappeared a long time ago.” There are only accusations of him having spoken of “errors in organization”.

But one should not seek the rupture of Trotsky with his anti-Leninist past in a legal act of abjuration, but in his efforts and his writings from 1917 on. In his preface, Trotsky makes a point of showing his complete agreement with Lenin before and during October; but he refers explicitly to the period which followed the February revolution, and he observes that before even returning to Russia, in articles written in America he had expressed opinions comparable with those of Lenin in his letters from Switzerland. He never thought of trying to hide that it is he, who, faced with the lesson of history, moved on to Lenin’s terrain, whereas previously he had wrongly combated him.

Trotsky discusses with all the right and position as member of the Bolshevik party who reproaches the right-wing of his party for having an attitude which repeats the same Menshevik errors of the revolutionary period. The fact of having been, in the period previous to the revolution and the supreme struggle, unscathed by such errors and at Lenin’s side, of his school, gave only greater responsibilities to Lenin’s lieutenants to genuinely support the action and not to fall into rightist errors.

It is thus to completely reverse the terms of the debate, based on partial information, to allot to Trotsky’s thesis in the foreword of 1917, the position according to which the proletarian revolution was impossible in Russia before it took place in other countries, since it is on the contrary a critique which states that this position was at the root of the errors of the right.

If we admit that there is a new Trotskyism, which is not the case, no link could attach it to old. In any event the new Trotskyism would be left, while the old one was from the right. And between the two ranges the magnificent communist activity of Trotsky against the opportunist social-democrats, besides this was recognized without hesitation as rigorously Bolshevik by all other collaborators of Lenin .

Where is the polemic of Lenin against opportunist better assisted than in the writings of Trotsky? And it is enough to cite only one of them: Terrorism and Communism. In all the congresses of the Russian party, of the Soviets, of the International, Trotsky has submitted reports and speeches which trace in a fundamental manner the policy of Communism in recent years; and they were never opposed to those of Lenin on the key questions: never, absolutely, if we speak about the International Congresses , for which Trotsky always prepared the official proclamations, in which he divided, step by step, with Lenin, the polemics and the body of work achieved to consolidate the new International in disencumbering it of opportunist residues.

During this period of time no other interpreters of Lenin have reached the surety of conception of Trotsky on the fundamental questions of doctrine and of revolutionary policy, whereas he had had risen to the level of the Master in the effectiveness, the precision of the presentation, and the explanation of these questions, in discussion and propaganda.

I do not want to even speak about the role taken on by Trotsky as a leader in the revolutionary struggle and in political and military defense of the revolution, because I do not have either the need or the intention to make his apology; but I believe that this past must be called upon to underline the injustice that there is in exhuming the old judgement of Lenin on Trotsky’s love of the“left revolutionary phrase,” an insinuation that it is best to reserve for those who showed that they can only see revolutions from afar, and perhaps most Western “ultra-Bolsheviks’.

It is said that Trotsky represented the petit-bourgeois elements during the preceding discussion in the party. We can’t take up all the contents of this discussion, but it should not be forgotten: firstly, that with regard to the economic policy of the republic, the majority of the party and of the Central Committee took up the proposals of Trotsky and the opposition; secondly, that the opposition had a heterogeneous composition and that in the same way that one cannot allot to Trotsky the opinions of Radek on the German question, similarly it is inaccurate to allot to him those of Krassin and others in favour of more wide-ranging concessions to foreign capital; thirdly, that in the question of the internal organization of the party, Trotsky did not support systematic splitting and decentralization, but a Marxist conception of discipline, neither mechanical, nor stifling. The need for examining this important matter more clearly becomes more urgent with each passing day and besides would require a separate exposé. But the insinuation that Trotsky was made the spokesperson of petit-bourgeois tendencies is destroyed by the charge according to which he underestimated the role of peasants in the revolution compared to that industrial proletariat — another free axis of the polemic, whereas Lenin’s agrarian theses found a disciple and a faithful partisan in Trotsky (on this subject Lenin wasn’t at all defensive in saying that he had stolen the program of the Socialist Revolutionaries). All these attempts to lend anti-Bolshevik  features to Trotsky do not persuade us at all.

After the revolution Trotsky was opposed to Lenin, on the question of the of the Brest Litovsk peace and about State trade unionism. They are undoubtedly important questions, but they are not sufficient to qualify other leaders who had the same positions as Trotsky at the time as anti-Leninists. It is not on partial errors of this kind on which one can build a complex assembly to make of Trotsky our Antichrist with flurries of quotations and anecdotes where the chronology as well as the logic are upside down.

It is also said that Trotsky is in dissension with the International on the analysis of the world situation, that he considers it with pessimism, and that the facts have contradicted his forecast of a democratico-pacifist phase. It is a fact that he was entrusted with the mandate to write the Manifesto of the 5th Congress on precisely this subject, and that this was adopted with unimportant modifications. Trotsky speaks about the pacifist phase as a “danger” against which Communists must react by underlining, during these democratic periods, the inevitability of the civil war and the alternative between two opposite dictatorships. As regards pessimism, it is precisely he who denounces and fights the pessimism in others, in affirming, as Lenin said of October, that if one lets pass the opportune moment for the insurrectionary struggle, there follows an unfavourable period: the situation in Germany has confirmed this analysis only too well.

Trotsky’s schema on the world situation does not merely restrict itself to seeing the installation of left bourgeois governments everywhere; it is on the contrary a profound analysis of the forces at play in the capitalist world, which no declaration of the International currently actually calls into question, based on the fundamental thesis of the insurmountability of the current capitalist crisis.

Anti-Bolshevik elements are ready to support Trotsky. Obviously, they must be delighted at the official assertion according to which one of our major leaders is supposed to have rejected our fundamental political positions, that he is against the dictatorship and for the return to petit-bourgeois forms, etc. But already the bourgeois press have recognized that there was nothing there to hope for, that Trotsky more than any other is against democracy and for the relentless violence of the revolution against its enemies.

If bourgeois and social-traitors really hope that Trotsky undertakes a revision Leninism or Communism in their direction, it will be at their expense. Only the silence and the inaction of Trotsky could give some probability to these lies, to these speculations of our enemies. For example, the foreword which is in question was published, undoubtedly, by a fascist review; but the editors were forced of to announce at the end of the text that, unfortunately, no one on earth could think that the opinion of the review could be further away from that of Trotsky. And “Avanti!” simply makes everyone laugh when it speaks in praise of Trotsky, while at the same time it publishes the passage where, to support his theses, it cites the Italian case as a demonstration of the failure of the revolution because of the inadequacy of the parties, while thus referring precisely to the socialist party!

The German rightists accused of Trotskyism object that this is not true, because they support exactly the opposite of what Trotsky wrote: the impossibility of revolution in Germany in October 1923. Moreover the alleged solidarity of the other side can never be used as an argument in order to establish our positions. This is what this experience has taught us.

Trotsky must be judged on what he says and what he writes. Communists should not make questions of people; if some day Trotsky betrayed, he would have to be unmasked and scorched without regard. But one should not be convinced of treason by the excesses of his opponents or their privileged position in the debate. All the accusations about his past are bowled over by the simple observation that they have all been provoked by his forward to 1917 which does not refer to this question at all, whereas previously these attacks were not considered to be necessary.

The polemic against Trotsky left the workers with a feeling of sorrow and produced a smile of triumph on the lips of our enemies. So good, we want friends and enemies to know that even without and against Trotsky the proletarian party could live and overcome. But as long as the conclusions are those to which the debate leads today, Trotsky is not the man to have passed over to the enemy.

In his declarations he did not disavow a line of what he wrote, and that is not contrary to Bolshevik discipline; but he also declared that he had never wanted to constitute a faction on a political and personal basis and that he was more than ever disciplined to the party. One could not want anything more of a man who is among the worthiest of being the head of the revolutionary party.

But beyond the sensational question of his personality, problems that he raised remain: they should not be eluded, but faced.


About Two Squares: El Lissitzky’s 1922 suprematist picture book for kids

$
0
0
1467314 1430490 1467315 1467316 1467317 1467318 1467319 1467320 1467321 1467322 1467324

Originally published in the
Cambridge Literary Review
.

Most children’s books do not come with instructions for how to read them. El Lissitzky’s About Two Squares is not most children’s books.

Lissitzky first announced his plan to write a “suprematist tale”[1] about two intergalactic squares while teaching graphic arts and printmaking at the Vitebsk Institute of Popular Art in 1920. Traces of the idea can be detected as early as September 1919, however, shortly after he arrived in the city. Initially a disciple of the Jewish folk painter Marc Chagall, Lissitzky soon came under the spell of the charismatic avant-garde pioneer Kazimir Malevich (who usurped Chagall’s role as rector of the Institute that winter). Almost immediately one notices a shift in the form and subject-matter of Lissitzky’s oeuvre, as he abandoned village scenes and stylized conventional figures in favor of planar abstractions and floating rectilinear shapes. Within a matter of months, his entire artistic worldview was transformed.

untitled_34526, 4/21/11, 10:46 AM,  8C, 7978x6063 (12+2820), 100%, Final Repro Cu, 1/120 s, R57.8, G47.6, B64.8 untitled_34528, 4/21/11, 10:53 AM,  8C, 7978x6063 (12+2820), 100%, Final Repro Cu, 1/120 s, R57.8, G47.6, B64.8 untitled_34533, 4/21/11, 11:18 AM,  8C, 7978x6225 (12+2820), 100%, Final Repro Cu, 1/120 s, R57.8, G47.6, B64.8 untitled_34535, 4/21/11, 11:36 AM,  8C, 7978x6225 (12+2820), 100%, Final Repro Cu, 1/120 s, R57.8, G47.6, B64.8

Part of this transformation involved a change in Lissitzky’s approach to typography and book design. These were fields in which he showed prior interest. He had prepared a songbook for the traditional Passover poem Chad Gadya in 1917, and then again in 1919. Both of these versions clearly demonstrate the abiding influence of Chagall, though by the time the second one was published, suprematist elements already began to enter in. Following the release of the 1919 edition, Lissitzky informed Malevich of his newfound perspective:

It is my belief that the thoughts we drink from the book with our eyes must be poured over every visible shape. The letters and punctuation marks, which introduce order to thoughts, must also be taken into account. Besides that, the way the rows are set corresponds to certain condensations of thought; these should be condensed for the benefit of the eye as well.[2]

Evidently, suprematism for Lissitzky had consequences well beyond the realm of the painted object. It implied a broader reconsideration of the medium of print. Lissitzky was an ardent — if self-trained — bibliologist, and in 1926 he hypothesized what effect modern art might have on the future of the book. “There are today two dimensions to the word,” he maintained in an article for the Gutenberg-Jahrbuch. “As sound, it is a function of time; as exposition, of space. The book of the future must be both.”[3]

Yve-Alain Bois, a Swiss art critic and Lissitzky scholar, has noted that authors only began to take an interest in the visuals of their books toward the end of the nineteenth century.[4] Questions of format, font, and layout generally seemed besides the point. Little attention was paid to the arrangement of text upon the page. With the advent of photography and improved printing technology, however, new possibilities were opened. Citing the development of “facsimile-electrotype (or half-tone blocks),” Lissitzky speculated that this would allow for greater flexibility in the illustration of written materials.[5] Great innovators like F.T. Marinetti likewise had a role to play in Lissitzky’s scheme, discerning the potential of boldface lettering and ALL CAPS to convey emphasis or emotion.[6] Nevertheless, the aesthetics of print continued to lag behind other fields of art until the outbreak of World War I, usually held up as a cultural watershed.

flying-to-earth-from-a-distance-1920

Russia was no exception to this trend. “Before October 1917,” Lissitzky explained in a catalog ten years later, “our artists hardly concerned themselves with typesetting. That matter was left to the printers.” He continued: “After October, many of our premier artists in different fields, hoping to express the new through the specific properties of each medium, took up the task of reinventing the book according to the material of the book itself — i.e., type.”[7] Painters especially participated in this process, starting even before the war, working together with poets to revolutionize the medium.[8] By the 1920s, swept along by the maelstrom of revolution, avant-garde bookmakers were employed in the production of posters as propaganda for the masses. Lissitzky even likened such placards and printed visual displays to single pages ripped from books, magnified and blown up several dozen times.[9]

This new movement, which sought to break down the barrier separating art from life, entailed the “death” of painting as it had hitherto been known. Aleksandr Rodchenko gave up painting in order to pursue photography and agitprop. Varvara Stepanova abandoned the canvas for fabrics and textile patterns. For Lissitzky, the prewar experiments in painting had simply prepared artists for the revolutionary enterprise of construction, an idea charged with meaning at the time. His celebrated PROUN series merely provided the point of departure, being “the way station between art and architecture.”[10] Similarly, the book displaced painting and sculpture as the most monumental art form of revolutionary Russia.[11] It was this fact, in Lissitzky’s view, that sealed the fate of older forms of artistic production. “Once the printed page started to seduce the artist,” he wrote morbidly, “painting slowly died.”[12]

Bois has referred to this rhetorical conceit regarding the death of easel painting as “the cliché of the era.”[13] Was it really nothing more than a cliché, though? Might it not have had a real sociohistoric basis?

Indeed, About Two Squares can be read as a dramatization of this very aspiration, though intended for children. Lissitzky stressed the importance of such literature in the upbringing of the New Man: “We should add to the number of illustrated weeklies the flood of children’s picture-books. Children’s reading teaches them a new plastic language. They grow up with a different relation to image and color, the world and space.”[14] About Two Squares recapitulates Lissitzky’s belief that revolutionary form heralds the arrival of revolutionary content, and that the former must act as a vehicle for the latter.

CRI_227458 pro02 pro03 pro04 pro05 pro07 pro09 pro11 pro13 pro15 pro17 pro18

The book finally appeared in 1922, roughly two years after Lissitzky envisioned it, under the imprimatur of the Scythian press [Skythen Verlag] in Berlin. On the back cover, however, was a symbol indicating its origin in Vitebsk: the UNOVIS logo — a red square set inside a thin black frame, partially circumscribed within a circle. Scythian publishing house was loosely affiliated with the Left Socialist-Revolutionary party in Russia, run mostly by Russian symbolist poets living abroad. In some ways it may be seen as a prototype of later samizdat operations. About Two Squares was among the first modernist publications they put out.

We turn now to the text. The first page or so, in which the author addresses his readers with instructions for how the book is to be read, may be set aside for a moment. Lissitzky’s narrative unfolds straightforwardly enough:

here ARE
………………two
……………squares
flying toward the Earth
…………………………………from far away
and see
……………the black restlessly
craSH —
..….…..— scattering everywhere
and upon the black
……………the Red establishes itself clearly
So it ends
……..……further on…[15]

Glancing at the illustrations that accompany the text, one sees that the two squares mentioned in the opening line are red and black, respectively. The black square hovers just above the red, tilting slightly to the side. Both squares are about the same size. Everything else in the book is colorless, though the monochromy is broken up by the illusion of depth in some shapes contrasted with the flatness of others.

A few broad interpretive claims may be made at this point without risking too much controversy. First, the black square is suprematism. Or rather, it is Malevich’s Black Square (1913), which by then had effectively become a metonym for the movement. Second, the red square is communism. Dipped in the blood of the June insurgents of 1848, the red flag soon replaced the national tricoleur as the international symbol of revolution.[16] “In About Two Squares,” observes Bois, in his semiotic analysis of the work, “the political signified is extremely weak; text and illustrations are barely informed by it…Only the colors, whose symbolism is highly conventional, offer a clue.”[17] Here he is no doubt correct, but he remains hobbled by the steadfast immanence of his reading. Bois is unwilling to seek context outside the text immediately before him.

Kazimir_Malevich,_1915,_Black_Suprematic_Square,_oil_on_linen_canvas,_79.5_x_79.5_cm,_Tretyakov_Gallery,_Moscow Kazimir_malevich,_quadrato_rosso_(realismo_del_pittore_di_una_campagnola_in_due_dimensioni),_1915

Clues may be sought elsewhere in Lissitzky’s corpus. In a manifesto written in Vitebsk on “Suprematism in World Reconstruction,” Lissitzky placed these two revolutions — political and aesthetic — side by side: “Into this chaos [of world war, civil war, revolution] came suprematism extolling the square as the very source of all creative expression. And then came communism and extolled work as the true source of man’s heartbeat.”[18] On the surface, this would seem to confirm the interpretation outlined above; and indeed it does. Yet there is a subtle polemic embedded in About Two Square’s disarmingly simple presentation. Namely, it is a polemic that takes issue with one of Lissitzky’s own prior formulations. Whereas he argued in the 1920 manifesto just cited that suprematism would eventually supersede communism as a higher phase of human collectivity, in 1922 his argument is the exact opposite.[19] The black square inaugurates a revolution in form, but this in turn must give way to the revolutionary substance supplied by the red square.

Malevich’s Black Square was thus significant for Lissitzky both as a premonition of 1917 and as a resolutely negative stance vis-à-vis the world of objects. Suprematism cleared the air, so to speak, relieving artists of the burden of representation. It took the fragmented bits of space left over by the cubists, which had been further set in motion by the futurists, and smashed these into even smaller smithereens. Recall the line: “see the black restlessly craSH — scattering everywhere.” Non-objective art was the death ray artists aimed at an outworn reality, and it shone with the force of all-encompassing annihilation. Like Rodchenko’s promotional poster for a movie of the same name (Death Ray),[20] also released in 1922, organic shapes disintegrate before the gaze of black geometric abstraction. This is not a mere formal exercise, either. Discussing Marinetti, Lissitzky wrote: “I should like to stress that Marinetti does not call for playing with form as form, but asks rather that the action of a new content should be intensified by the form.”[21] Form prepares the way for content, and is not satisfied with the pursuit of form for form’s sake.

Once the work of destruction is complete, moreover, the work of construction begins. Affirmation of the new requires the negation of the old. In his final published meditation this subject, toward the end of The Reconstruction of Architecture in the Soviet Union (1929), Lissitzky described these two moments — negative and positive — as belonging to a single “dialectical process.” As he went on to elaborate, this process “simultaneously affirms both the yes (plus) and no (minus).”[22] Here the great artist returned to a theme he had written about some years earlier in introducing the dadaist Kurt Schwitters’ magazine Merz, regarding the oscillation of positive and negative in infinity’s exponential growth.[23] But Lissitzky also echoed, albeit unconsciously, the doctrine of the interchange between Yes and No laid down by the German mystic theologian Jakob Boehme and later clarified by the philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.[24]

death ray movie rodchenko

Turning back to the dialectical process Lissitzky mentioned, it is noteworthy that he would list the principal task facing revolutionaries after October as the destruction of tradition: “Our time demands designs that have their origin in elementary forms (geometry).” With the start of construction, artists took their cue from heavy industry and large-scale machinery, developing their designs “in the direction of basic utilitarian considerations and the satisfaction of basic needs.”[25] Lissitzky never succumbed to the delirious technophilia or rank mechanolatry of his peers Vladimir Tatlin and Aleksei Gan. For him, constructivism had less to do with copying grain silos or emulating turbines than it did humanity’s ability to govern its own destiny. If communism was to be, as Marx put it, “the riddle of History solved” (in which the present dominates the past rather than the other way around),[26] then all mankind must participate in its creation.

About Two Squares encourages its readers to heed this call in the introductory note printed on the opening page. Lissitzky’s advice ran as follows: “Don’t read this book. Take paper. Fold rods. Color in blocks of wood. Build…” Unlike Malevich, whose art was ultimately self-referential — having no goal beyond itself, as the aesthetic theorist Boris Groys correctly maintains — the art Lissitzky produced was made with the express intent of serving life.[27] It was not enough that the black square had wiped out all reference to the past. One must be the red square as well, asserted Lissitzky, and actively build the future. The ellipsis in the book’s last line (“So it ends, further on…”) meant to spill off of its pages onto the pages of History.

El Lissitzky, self-portrait of the builder El_Lissitzky_in_Weimar Schwitters Lissitzky Untitled (El Lissitzky Working on a Stage Design of Sergei Tretyakov's Play "I Want a Baby" in the Meyerhold Theater 11868248 11868247 1060459 09-lissitzky-el-01

Notes


[1] «Супрематический сказ».
[2] «…Я считаю, что мысли, которые мы пьем из книги глазами, мы должны влить через все формы, глазами воспринимаемые. Буквы, знаки препинания, вносящие порядок в мысли, должны быть учтены, но кроме этого бег строк сходится у каких-то сконденсированных мыслей, их и для глаза нужно сконденсировать». El Lissitzky quoted in Khardzhiev, Nikolai. “El Lissitzky: Konstruktor knigi.” 1960.
[3] Lissitzky, El. “The Future of the Book.” New Left Review. (Volume 1, № 41: January-February 1967). Pg. 41.
[4] “Until the advent of modernism, writers paid little attention to typography. After the whimsical pictograms of medieval manuscripts and the mannered calligrams of Greek, Hebrew, Gallic, and Arabic poetry, typography became the restricted province of a few specialists…Though typographers designed new faces, writers were interested only in the arrangement of type by the linear foot, punctuated by an occasional ornamental capital. Except for…a few…exceptional cases), writers were either bored…or threatened by what they saw as an impediment to the presumed transparency of the signifier.” Bois, Yves-Alain. “Reading Lessons.” Translated by Christian Hubert. October. (Volume 11: Winter 1979). Pg. 113.
[5] Lissitzky, “The Future of the Book.” Pg. 41.
[6] “Marinetti, the siren of Futurism, also dealt with typography in his masterly manifestos.” Ibid.
[7] I.e., creating «новую книгу…материалом самой книги, т.е. набором». Лисицкий, Эль. «Художник в производстве». Путеводитель всесоюзной полиграфической выставки. Москва, 1927.
[8] “The new movement which began in Russia in 1908 bound painter and poet together from the very first day; hardly a poetry book has appeared since then without the collaboration of a painter…[T]he poets Khlebnikov, Kruchenykh, Mayakovski, and Aseev worked with the painters Rosanova, Goncharova, Malevich, Popova, Burliuk, etc.” Lissitzky, “The Future of the Book.” Pg. 42.
[9] “We ripped up the traditional book into single pages, magnified these a hundred times, printed them in color and stuck them up as posters in the streets.” Ibid.
[10] Лисицкий, Эль. «Тезисов к ПРОУНУ (от живописи к архитектуре)».
[11] “The book is the most monumental art form today; no longer is it fondled by the delicate hands of a bibliophile, but seized by a hundred thousand hands.” Lissitzky, “The Future of the Book.” Pg. 43.
[12] Лисицкий, «Художник в производстве».
[13] Bois, “El Lissitzky: Reading Lessons.” Pg. 116.
[14] Lissitzky, “The Future of the Book.” Pgs. 43-44.
[15] «вот два квадрата || летят на землю издалека || и видят — черно, тревожно || удар — всё рассыпано || и по чёрному установилось красно (ясно) || тут кончено, дальше…»
[16] Marx, Karl. The Class Struggles in France, 1848-1850. Translated by Clemens Dutt. Collected Works, Volume 10: Marx and Engels, 1849-1851. (International Publishers. New York, NY: 1977). Pg. 70.
[17] Bois, “El Lissitzky: Reading Lessons.” Pg. 116.
[18] Lissitzky, El. “Suprematism in World Reconstruction.” Translated by Sophie Lissitzky-Küppers. The Tradition of Constructivism. (Da Capo Press. New York, NY: 1990). Pg. 154.
[19] “if communism, which set human labor on the throne, and suprematism, which raised aloft the square pennant of creativity, now march forward together then in the further stages of development it is communism which will have to remain behind because suprematism…embraces the totality of life’s phenomena…
……After the Old Testament there came the New — after the New the Communist — and after the Communist there follows finally the testament of Suprematism.” Ibid., pg. 158.
[20] Луч смерти.
[21] Lissitzky, “The Future of the Book.” Pg. 41.
[22] Lissitzky, El. The Reconstruction of Architecture in the Soviet Union. Translated by Eric Dluhosch. (MIT Press. Cambridge, MA: 1970). Pg. 69.
[23] “In the year 1924 will be found the square root (√) of infinity (∞) which swings between meaningful (+) and meaningless (–); its name: NASCI.” Lissitzky, El. “Introduction to Merz № 8/9, April 1924.” Translated by Sophie Lissitzky-Küppers. Life, Letters, Texts. (Thames & Hudson. New York, NY: 1968). Pg. 347.
[24] “Boehme…employs the antithesis, or the forms of Yes and No.” Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Lectures on the Philosophy of History, 1825-1826: Medieval and Modern Philosophy. Translated by R.F. Brown and J.M. Stewart. (University of California Press. Los Angeles, CA: 1990). Pg. 129.
[25] Lissitzky, The Reconstruction of Architecture in the Soviet Union. Pgs. 69-70.
[26] “Communism is the riddle of history solved, and it knows itself to be this solution.” Marx, Karl. Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844. Translated by Martin Milligan and Dirk J. Struik. Collected Works, Volume 3: 1843-1844. (International Publishers. New York, NY: 1975). Pgs. 296-297.
[27] “Malevich shows us what it means to be a revolutionary artist. It means joining the universal material flow that destroys all temporary political and aesthetic orders. Here, the goal is not change — understood as change from an existing, ‘bad’ order to a new, ‘good’ order. Rather, revolutionary art abandons all goals — and enters the non-teleological, potentially infinite process which the artist cannot and does not want to bring to an end.” Groys, Boris. “Becoming Revolutionary: On Kazimir Malevich.” e-flux. September 2013.



No tears for tankies

$
0
0

.
.
Amber A’Lee Frost had an article published on The Baffler yesterday, “Flakes alive! On not attending the Left Forum.” It is, among other things, a hilarious send-up of the weird, wacky, and hopelessly insular world of fringe leftist subcultures. Plus, it’s extremely well written, so I highly recommend that everyone read it.

Not everyone was pleased by Frost’s various jabs at “tankies, truthers, and tofu,” however. Unsurprisingly, her piece managed to ruffle a few feathers.  Some of the responses have been a bit more measured. Others, who were the butt of her jokes, were predictably a little less kind. But nowhere has the backlash been worse than on Stalinist Twitter: a peculiar mélange of social justice paraphernalia, Komsomol Manga, and Red Army porn. Edgy conspiracy theories — debunking the misinformation spread by the “mainstream media,” exposing government infiltrators and agents provocateurs, flagging “false flag” operations by imperialist powers — are also common in this milieu.

I know what you’re thinking. “Stalinist Twitter?” you’ll ask yourself, incredulously. “That can’t be real.”

Were that it wasn’t. Yes, it’s a real thing. And to those of you who don’t believe me, I invite you to dip your toe into the tepid kiddie-pool that is the tankie Twitterverse. For most reasonably well-adjusted people, it’s “an absolute shitshow of nerds and social rejects,” as Amber accurately put it. Reader discretion is advised, however. It’s not exactly the most enlightening experience out there, but at the very least it makes for some good entertainment. Welcome to the leper colony that is the contemporary Left.

Briefly, a word on the provenance and history of the term “tankie,” for the uninitiated. Amber’s definition — “slang for Soviet apologist, or actual Stalinist” — is serviceable, but rather imprecise. “Tankie” was an epithet coined on the British left several decades ago to denote anyone who still supported the Kremlin line after the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956. Khrushchev had delivered his so-called “secret speech” on Stalin’s cult of personality and its consequences earlier in the year, but the tanks rolling into Budapest signaled a quite obvious return to form.

So to be clear, the term isn’t necessarily anti-Marxist or anti-communist: it’s anti-Stalinist, and anti-Maoist insofar as Mao continued to defend and draw upon Stalin’s legacy. For Marxists like me, or indeed anyone of a more Trotskyist or left communist persuasion, the term is inoffensive. The same goes for nondenominational socialists like Amber, whose membership in the DSA is openly admitted in her article (though Frost’s critics continue to point this out as if it’s some earth-shattering revelation). Personally, I have my issues with the DSA’s mild-mannered Menshevism and tailing of Bernie Sanders. But compared to the old guard Stalinists in the CP-USA, who’ve backed the Democrats in every major national election since the seventies, DSA cadre end up looking like urban guerrillas. Don’t forget that Lenin, too, was for most of his political career a Social Democrat.

Sarcophhaguspg144

I feel it is necessary to point this out, since some self-proclaimed Stalinists have expressed consternation and confusion over the “tankie” label. One young member of the Stalinist Twitter crowd has even gone so far as to suggest that the term “increasingly [just] means ‘principled anti-imperialist’.” Maybe so, if anti-imperialism means mindlessly boosting Putin, Assad, and the late Colonel Gaddafi against local insurrections of various ideological flavors. But I’ve opposed every U.S. military intervention during my lifetime, without at the same time lending support to tin-pot dictators and their henchmen who proclaim themselves “anti-imperialists.” So what would I know about anti-imperialism?

Anyway, it’s not as if they don’t resort to petty name-calling themselves. The Twitter Stalinists seem to oscillate wildly between Third Period-style accusations of “social fascism” (whereby any socialist or communist who disagrees with them is immediately branded “no better” than fascists) and Dmitrov-era popfront calls for unity and discipline (so as to keep up comradely appearances, or else rationalize coalitions with reactionary religious groups). Moreover, it’s hard not to laugh at all the tankie tears shed about being “purged,” considering their continued outspoken admiration for Stalin, who had more communists killed and imprisoned than any right-wing, red-baiting American politician. And when these Twitter Stalinists worry about being “purged,” what they really mean is they fear their panels won’t pass muster and be accepted. Not purged in the time-tested tankie sense of a show trial in front of Yezhov or Beria, followed by either an NKVD bullet to the back of the head or decades of frostbitten exile in some remote corner of the GULag archipelago.

Queen tankie Molly Klein — a fabulously rich heiress who grew up next to the Toscanini mansion on Wave Hill, daughter of the dude who invented PlayboyTV — routinely smears anyone who crosses her as “racist,” including the young black DSA member, Douglas Williams. Klein, alias RedKahina and numerous other sock-puppet accounts and anonymous online handles, has charged me on multiple occasions with antisemitism and antiziganism, despite my own Jewish and Roma ancestry. Now that Amber dared to make fun of her paranoiac panel from last year, accusing the Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek of being a CIA plant and psyop, they’ve begun making borderline misogynist remarks like “Amber Frost has to be a porn name” and “yuk, Frost wanders through the Left Forum like a dog with her tongue out thinking ‘whose leg can I hump?’.” Tarzie, the self-described “rancid honeytrap,” hoped that Amber would be hit by a bus. Charming lot, truly.

Screen Shot 2015-06-15 at 7.09.43 PM

Regarding that last point, on pseudo-leftoid paranoia and farfetched explanations of geopolitical events, I’d like to say a few words about the Twitter Stalinists’ impotent outrage at being categorized “conspiracy theorists.” Indeed, there is a great deal of overlap between tankies and truthers, as Amber hints in her piece. Let’s take a look at one spirited defense of conspiratorial explanations:

My favorite so far in the outpouring of Frost-inspired dumbness is this tweet from one of Twitter’s most lovable “Marxists”: Conspiracy theories are a class enemy. Of course we hear variations on this all the time on the Left, among people desperate to align themselves with the serious people for good radical reasons, no matter how blatantly non-analytical it requires them to be. A variation on the above is that conspiracy theories “ignore/obfuscate systemic analysis,” which if you haven’t noticed is a concept that’s all the rage among people who like to tell people to shut up in fancy schmancy ways, not just about conspiracies.

Or, further, the aptly-named “barfo marx” alleging that “…’conspiracy theorist’…has very racist connotations,” to which Molly Klein cheerfully adds: “Yes it literally means you are as likely to be behind nefarious acts as people of color.” Klein has said more or less the same thing many times before: “Literally failing to believe any accusation a powerful white person makes without evidence against uppity [persons of color] is conspiracy theory.” Understandable that they’d want to insulate themselves against accusations of “conspiracy theory.” Her comrade-in-Twitter-combat, Karen McRae, speculated after the Charlie Hebdo massacre that the whole thing had been a false flag operation carried out by Mossad. Go figure.

Figures like Marx and Lenin usually mentioned “conspiracy” [Konspiration or конспирация, respectively] only in denouncing anarchist tactics, occasionally in characterizing the open international collaborations against Bolshevik power. Sometimes they would poetically invoke the conspiration de silence surrounding this or that radical work, like Marx’s Capital. Lenin was aware of Okhrana agents inside the RSDLP, but did not seek to explain historical events with recourse to “conspiracy.” Indeed, he pointed out that this was in fact rhetorical trope of the Right — “a method repeatedly used by counter-revolutionaries: the charge of conspiracy.”

But conspiratorial explanations are easier than searching for the large-scale, anonymous structural dynamics that allow groups and individuals to carry out specific deeds. Twitter tankies like Molly Klein, Karen McRae, and Phil Greaves don’t want 9/11 truthers excluded from leftist events because they themselves believe the WTC collapse was a “controlled demolition,” an “inside job” (maybe carried out by the Zionists). Speaking of which, have any of you misplaced a shoe lately? Asghar Bukhari, the same guy who sent money to the Holocaust denier David Irving and praised him for standing up to “the lies spread by the Jews,” claims Mossad stole his shoe. You might remember his contribution to the Charlie Hebdo debate.

.
Conspiracy theories are convenient catchalls, above all.


Sociology of the Charleston massacre: White nationalism, terrorism, “lone wolves,” and gun control

$
0
0

.
Dylann Roof’s manifesto can be read here. (Update: It seems to have been removed, but you can read a full PDF version of the document here). Roof compiles a dossier of the various “races,” their putative prospects and faults. He has stuff on Jews and Hispanics — seems mostly ambivalent toward both — but it’s obvious this white nationalist fuck was mostly preoccupied with black people. The section on “blacks” takes up more than half of the document, dwarfing all the others combined. Jews and Hispanics were not the main object of Roof’s virulent hatred, and he expressed “a great deal of respect” for East Asians.

Nothing infuriates me more than white supremacists. “Last Rhodesian.” Go figure.

.
“Lone wolf” as organizational strategy
.

Anyway, this massacre is not a matter of some deranged individual. People like Dylann Roof don’t just pop up out of nowhere, in isolation from historically-evolved social and material conditions. They are products of a racist society. So it’s a structural and systemic issue rather than an issue of one or two “bad apples.”

However, as a friend pointed out to me, the “lone wolf” description actually makes sense when it comes to the strategy that’s been consciously cultivated by neo-Nazi organizations in the US over the years. Not to unduly “individualize” this phenomenon or anything like that. This kid discovered websites online that seemed to support and further articulate his preexisting racial prejudices, and he networked face-to-face with local hate groups. But this matches the pattern of decentralized organizational behavior that’s cropped up in recent decades. My friend put it best:

The anger at the use of the term “lone wolf” to describe Dylann Roof is severely misplaced. The use of the term in this context does not medicalize racist violence, it actually deepens our understanding of it. A ‘lone wolf’ is a white supremacist terrorist that is acting according to the decentralized organizational model that neo-Nazi leaders like Tom Metzger, founder of White Aryan Resistance, began to promote in the 1990s. Older American neo-Nazis, like George Lincoln Rockwell, had simply tried to mimic the NSDAP’s structure and ride the wave of 1950s anticommunism to cultural and political success. This shift in tactics was caused, primarily, by the decline of segregationist supporting institutions and politicians, including David Duke, as well as the successful infiltration of many White Supremacist groups by the federal government. Beyond transitioning to a decentralized organizational model, many neo-Nazi groups also began to deploy a whole host of entryist strategies to try and infiltrate mainstream conservative groups like the Minute Men and government institutions like the military. They also tried to repackage and, consequently, normalize their beliefs through a number of campaigns that transitioned their public views away from explicit eliminatory antisemitism, white imperialism, lynching, and eugenics and toward conspiracy theories about the United Nations, nativist opposition to immigration, criminal stereotyping, and race realism. Many of these groups also began to promote apartheid South Africa as a model for their vision of America and increasingly distanced themselves from Hitler and his followers. By not using the term “lone wolf,” antiracists end up stripping part of the recent history of neo-Nazism in the United States out of their description of this murderous fascist.

Just to reiterate, this does not in any way call into question the pervasiveness of racism in American society. Nor does it entertain the fantastic explanation of the attack as some sort of “assault on our religious liberty,” as 2016 presidential candidate Rick Santorum characterize the killings.  It’s pointless to psychologize this tragedy, chalking it up to mental illness or imbalance, or to attribute it to some other ideology (like anti-Christian hatred).

.
Terrorism and hate crime as legal categories
.

Clearly, the shooting was ideologically motivated: namely, by notions of racial supremacy. It was a deliberate act of terrorism targeting the black community of Charleston.

Legally speaking, however, I think categories such as “hate crime” and “terrorist” are superfluous. Not just here, but also in the case of Frazier Glenn Cross/Miller with the triple-homicide at that Jewish center in Kansas a couple years ago. I’m not suggesting that these aren’t terrorist or racist crimes. Obviously they are. Still, I’m not sure if these categories really add to the crime of premeditated mass murder. For clearly biased political reasons, the appellation “terrorist” is typically only applied in cases of jihadist violence (and not with white supremacist killings). Both are terrorist, no doubt. At the juridical level, however, this classification is mostly just tacked on in order to compound the number of years faced by persons accused of more minor crimes. Usually it’s used to threaten or punish individuals of Middle Eastern descent entrapped by law enforcement in supposed terror plots.

While we’re on the subject, a few words on this last point. Cenk Uygur of the Young Turks broadcast has pointed out an unsettling truth: since 2002, right-wing homegrown white terrorists have killed more Americans than Muslim extremists. So much for the spurious notion that foreign jihadists constitute the greatest threat to American lives.

.
Gun control: A diversionary canard
.

Obama weighed in on the Charleston incident, at any rate, with characteristically tepid remarks. For him, the main issue was one of insufficient “gun control.” Gun control legislation, in my opinion, is usually just a way for the two major American parties to rally their respective bases: rural white libertarian gun nuts for the Republicans, and bleeding-heart liberals for the Democrats. More often than not, harsher gun control laws in practice simply serve as an excuse for police to arrest more urban blacks and Latinos. Here are Alex Gourevitch’s reflections on the comments Obama made regarding Charleston, trying to frame this as a gun control issue:

The President says that Charleston was first and foremost about how “innocent people were killed in part because someone who wanted to inflict harm had no trouble getting their hand on a gun.” It was also about a “dark chapter in our history,” namely racial slavery and Jim Crow. He only suggests practical action regarding the first issue, namely gun control. He doesn’t consider that this will make the persistence of the second problem even worse. I say this knowing it is possibly an odd thing to say today, but I am against these gun control responses to mass killings — racially motivated or otherwise. Gun control means writing more criminal laws, creating new crimes, and therefore creating more criminals or more reasons for police to suspect people of crimes. More than that, it means creating yet more pretexts for a militarized police, full of racial and class prejudice, to overpolice.

There is an unrecognized gap between the justification for gun control and its most likely effect. There is no reason to expect fair enforcement of gun control laws, or even that they will mainly be used to someone prevent these massacres. That is because how our society polices depends not on the laws themselves but on how the police — and prosecutors and courts — decide to enforce the law. Especially given how many guns there are in the US, we know that gun laws, like drug laws, will be selectively enforced. I can’t see gun control doing much for mass shootings, but I can see it becoming part of the system of social control of mostly black, mostly poor people that the drug war and broken windows policing has created. Gun charges already play a role in that system as it stands. There are already too many crimes, there is too much criminal law, and there is far too much incarceration — especially of black people. To the degree that all that is part of the “dark chapter in our history,” I think given the deep injustice of our society, and especially its policing practices, the actual practice of gun control will reproduce that dark chapter, not resolve it.

What happened in Charleston is a horrific tragedy. I don’t think the criminal law will solve it. I wish I had a better solution ready at hand. I don’t, though I think it would start by freeing our political imagination from instinctively reaching for the criminal law.

Maybe I’m biased because I’ve been brainwashed by the Sparts when it comes to counterrevolutionary proposals to disarm the populace. Anyway, this emphasis on gun control distracts from the real issue underlying Dylann Roof’s massacre of nine black parishioners in Charleston two days ago: endemic racism. South Carolina is only a generation or so removed from having the Klan staging major rallies in cities across the state, and less than a hundred since they dropped leaflets and candy from swastika-emblazoned biplanes. Openly racist organizations may have been forced underground, and operate more according to “lone wolf” tactics, but the animating ideology behind it all, white supremacy, remains the same.

It’s a shame Sherman only got as far east as Columbia, South Carolina. Would’ve been great for him to torch Charleston as well.


In defense of Slavoj Žižek

$
0
0

.
The title of this post recalls Žižek’s own 2008 work In Defense of Lost Causes. Not one of his better books, in my opinion. Žižek remains one of the few redeemable intellectuals of our time. Despite, or perhaps because of, his zany antics and constant clowning, he manages to be consistently insightful. Or at least compared to most. Marxism, like Žižek, might today be a lost cause. But I’ll defend it nonetheless.

9781844674299-frontcover-a047d4d9d5c84e50c3bc493cf8e415cb

Molly Klein and friends have leveled a number of accusations against the Slovenian Marxist philosopher Slavoj Žižek. Among other things, they have alleged that he is a “psyop” in the employ of the US government. Supposedly he is working to undermine the rebirth of any genuinely anti-imperialist Left. (Recently Molly suggested that the Jacobin editor and founder Bhaskar Sunkara is also a paid propagandist). Klein’s online clique — a couple drones and devotees, but mainly sock puppets run by Klein herself — takes great exception to the term “tankie,” yet calls anyone who disagrees with them a fascist.

They have also implied that Žižek and his Ljubljana school colleagues Alena Zupančič and Mladen Dolar published a translation of the apocryphal Protocols of the Elders of Zion in 1989, the first to appear in Slovenia. Certainly a serious charge, not to be taken lightly. It is however baseless, as can be proved without much difficulty. Perhaps Klein’s other arguments against Žižek are accurate (not bloody likely). But this is the claim under investigation here, so I’ll confine my remarks to it.

Most are probably aware that the Protocols were widely disseminated in the first few decades of the twentieth century, providing “indisputable proof” of an international Jewish conspiracy. Anti-Semites in multiple countries across Europe and North America promoted the text as an authentic document, as part of their vicious smear campaign against the Jews. So its translation would seem especially incendiary in a place like former Yugoslavia, where memories of the Holocaust were still fresh in the 1980s.

Perhaps it is a waste of time to debunk Klein’s defamatory claim. Nobody really believed this ridiculous libel to begin with. Readers of Žižek will no doubt be surprised to hear that he endorses the view that the Protocols are genuine, as this runs counter to everything he has said on the subject in his writings. For example, in Welcome to the Desert of the Real he wrote:

When we consider [the Palestinian-Israeli] conflict we should stick to cold, ruthless standards, suspending the urge to try to “understand” the situation: we should unconditionally resist the temptation to “understand” Arab anti-Semitism (where we really encounter it) as a “natural” reaction to the sad plight of the Palestinians; or to “understand” the Israeli measures as a “natural” reaction against the background of the memory of the Holocaust. There should be no “understanding” for the fact that, in many — if not most — Arab countries, Hitler is still considered a hero; the fact that in primary-school textbooks all the traditional anti-Semitic myths — from the notorious forged Protocols of the Elders of Zion to claims that the Jews use the blood of Christian (or Arab) children for sacrificial purposes — are perpetrated. To claim that this anti-Semitism articulates resistance against capitalism in a displaced mode does not in any way justify it (the same goes for Nazi anti-Semitism: it, too, drew its energy from anticapitalist resistance): here displacement is not a secondary operation, but the fundamental gesture of ideological mystification. What this claim does involve is the idea that, in the long term, the only way to fight anti-Semitism is not to preach liberal tolerance, and so on, but to express the underlying anticapitalist motive in a direct, non-displaced way.

Žižek’s understanding of anti-Semitism as a misrecognized form of anticapitalism mirrors that of Moishe Postone and Werner Bonefeld, as well as other Marxist theorists of antisemitism. But the pertinent point here is that the Slovenian philosopher explicitly denounces the Protocols as a forgery, which they are. Why would he maintain the Protocols were the Real deal if he clearly believes them to be a hoax? Klein takes this a step further, of course, “betting that [Žižek] translated the Protocols into Slovenian and wrote Sublime Object side by side.”

Let’s examine the accusation in detail, however, point by point.

  1. First, it is pointed out that Žižek, Dolar, and Zupančič edited and wrote essays for the Ljubljana-based student journal Tribuna. In 1971, Dolar became editor of “the student newspaper Tribuna,” as he relates in a recent interview. More info can be found in Žizek and His Contemporaries: On the Emergence of the Slovenian Lacan, an intellectual history put out by. Perfectly true.
  2. Next, Klein et al. refer to an obscure report from the Jewish Telegraphic Agency in 1990, discussing a scandal that had broken out the previous year. “A prominent member of the tiny Jewish community in Slovenia has sued the youth magazine Tribuna for publishing the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a notorious anti-Semitic forgery that originated in Czarist Russia at the turn of the century.” Perfectly true.
  3. Third, a paper by Laslo Sekelj on “Antisemitism and Jewish Identity in Serbia after the 1991 Collapse of the Yugoslav State” from 1997 is invoked. “Ljubljana’s University magazine Tribuna (financed from the republic’s budget) between August 1988 to March 1989 published The Protocols of the Elders of Zion for the very first time in the Slovenian language, and there was no way to have its publication suspended,” writes Sekelj. “This was the first open publication of the Protocols in Yugoslavia since 1945.” Perfectly true.

Indeed, this is the same publication Dolar edited in the early- to mid-1970s, to which Žižek and Zupančič contributed articles. Case closed! Turns out they were right. Right?

Wrong.

Dolar and Žižek were long gone by the time chief editor Tomaž Drozg decided to serialize the controversial translation of the Protocols in August 1988. From around 1980 onward, Žižek and his pals worked primarily on the psychoanalytic publication Problemi. (Incidentally, Klein & co. fail to notice that Sekelj approvingly alludes to an article Žižek wrote in 1983 lambasting antisemitism in Slovenia). The reason for this is simple: it’s a fucking student publication. Žižek wrote for it when he was still a student, and likewise with Dolar.

But surely the fact that Žižek wrote for a publication that went on to publish the Protocols is indicative of deep some intellectual affinity, right? Not really. “Through the decades of publishing Tribuna has been facing a constant change in editorial policy, political affiliation, genre, format, design,” one site explains. How can one hold an individual or group of individuals accountable for editorial choices they didn’t make, in a journal whose political perspective had been dramatically overhauled — not once, but multiple times — since they left?

None of this, it should be said, is a groundbreaking discovery on my part. It is not impressive. A child could have done it. The entire run of Tribuna from 1951 to 1998 and 2009 to the present is available in toto for free online, scanned and uploaded to the Digital Library of Slovenia. So anyone who would like to verify Klein’s claim is free do so without much bother; it’s no great effort. Why, then, did no one bother to double-check?

Pages from URN_NBN_SI_DOC-2CXLR7O5-2

Glancing at just one of the issues from the series that printed the Protocols translation, a note from editor Tomi Drozg can be read. I don’t know Slovenian, but am fluent enough in Russian that I can sort of fake reading other Slavic languages. Plus, there’s always Google translate. From what I can make out, Drozg addresses some of the outrage that came from their initial publication (which featured only sparse commentary). He explains that while they were fabricated, the Protocols are historically important enough to reprint in the magazine. Whether Drozg is being mendacious here by playing dumb is hard to tell, but either way it has nothing to do with Žižek and his cohort. Anyone reading this who is fluent in Slovenian is welcome to offer a translation.

Klein and her Stalinist cronies are practically illiterate even in English, however, so maybe I should cut them some slack. Some of them I like to think are merely misguided, or else too polite to tell Molly to stfu. Emma Quangel, for example, though by she’s probably too far gone. John Steppling actually writes very thoughtful essays over at his blog, so I don’t know why he associates with these knuckleheads.

Quangel came through big a couple days ago by tracking Dylann Roof’s racist manifesto. Good on her for that, even if I disagree with her politics. A little over a year ago, however, she wrote something on this subject that deserves to be addressed:

Why are we giggling when there is a panel at Left Forum called “Žižek must be destroyed”? The facts are clear. Molly Klein invites us to consider the possibility that the Left is being targeted for infiltration and destruction. Is that so much to ask? I heard someone walk out of the panel huffing, “Well, I know Žižek is a racist, but that’s just crazy.” Are you kidding me? If Žižek is a racist, if he supports ethnic cleansing, if he sides 100% of the time with an imperialist agenda, if he spends much of his efforts presenting a grotesque caricature of a “Marxist” and misattributing Goebbels quotes to actual revolutionary Marxists, shouldn’t we be concerned? Apparently, a time of dark reaction such as this is the wrong time to consider the possibility.

Why are we giggling? Because it’s fucking stupid, that’s why.

Addendum

.
UPDATE:
Simon Gros, who is from Slovenia, has been kind enough to translate the editorial note in full. It reads as follows:

About the Protocols

Admitting to mistakes is not my favorite pastime. This time, however, I feel obliged to apologize for something which had the opposite effect of what was desired: namely, the publication of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion without any explanation. One had being arranged, but the author commissioned to write it wasn’t able to finish in time, making it my problem. In this sense the outrage felt by many Jews was justified, even though the text was already recognized as a falsification in court. But the intention behind publishing it was in no way antisemitic, or anything still darker, as the person who reported me to the Ljubljana prosecutor would like to claim. I am sure the Slovene public is mature enough to read this sort of text without becoming antisemitic. The destiny of the Slovenian nation is in many ways similar to the Jewish one. So in this context antisemitism would be absurd, as should ultimately be clear even to the person who informed on me. Yet to the Jews a sincere apology for misunderstanding the intent of the translation. I pledge to correct my mistake.

Greetings
Tomi Drozg

P.S. The “introductory text” to The Protocols in the sixteenth issue of Tribuna is an integral part of the book, and not an editorial foreword (as was mistaken by a lot of people).

Gros adds: “In my opinion this is a terrible excuse for publishing something like this, since it raises the question of what their purpose for translating it might have been (if not to promote antisemitism). Especially because no qualification or explanation of intent seems to have been published, like this ‘apology’ claims.” I agree with Gros’ assessment. An awful justification.

He continues: “It should be noted that this is not the first time an attack on Žižek has been based on some occurrence in Slovenia which was later unjustly applied to him, as if it had been done by him and not some other Slovene. In a similar case I found accusations of anti-Roma racism directed at him, based on the racist way in which our former (now deceased) president Drnovšek dealt with the issue of one particular Roma family. This was heavily reported in the media. So something in Slovenia is picked up and later applied to him personally. Quite a strange logic, primarily stemming from foreigners’ inability to understand the language.”


Against accelerationism, for Marxism

$
0
0

.
Introductory note

I reproduce here a short post by my friend Reid Kane critiquing the fundamental premises of “left accelerationism.” For those unfamiliar with this theoretical formation, I advise they check out #Accelerate: An Accelerationist Reader, which presents its self-selected antecedents as well as some original materials written by proponents of the movement. Benjamin Noys’ book Malign Velocities, which is brief but quite good, is also worth looking into for anyone seeking a more critical perspective. McKenzie Wark, Antonio Negri, and numerous others have written responses as well. A few months back I summarized a debate between Peter Wolfendale and Anthony Paul Smith and added some of my own thoughts on “The Future of Enlightenment.” Then later I wrote a bit defending the Promethean aspect of Marx’s thought, “Against Inadvertent Climate Change.”

My only other remark regarding Reid’s piece is that it is usefully supplemented by another short document, this time by Karl Marx. His “Speech on the Tenth Anniversary of the People’s Paper is available at the Marxists internet archive, and is to my mind the most concise summary of Marx’s contribution to political thought outside of the Manifesto.  In it, he unleashes a series of compact dialectical inversions that capture the ambivalence of capitalist development that Reid is driving at. An adumbrated version of its main points appears below:

The so-called revolutions of 1848 were but poor incidents — small fractures and fissures in the dry crust of European society. However, they denounced the abyss. Beneath the apparently solid surface, they betrayed oceans of liquid matter, only needing expansion to rend into fragments continents of hard rock. Noisily and confusedly they proclaimed the emancipation of the proletarian, i.e. the secret of the nineteenth century, and of the revolution of that century.

That social revolution, it is true, was no novelty invented in 1848. Steam, electricity, and the self-acting mule were revolutionists of a rather more dangerous character than even citizens Barbés, Raspail, and Blanqui…On the one hand, there have started into life industrial and scientific forces, which no epoch of the former human history had ever suspected. On the other hand, there exist symptoms of decay, far surpassing the horrors recorded of the latter times of the Roman Empire. In our days, everything seems pregnant with its contrary: Machinery, gifted with the wonderful power of shortening and fructifying human labor, we behold starving and overworking it; the newfangled sources of wealth, by some strange weird spell, are turned into sources of want; The victories of art seem bought by the loss of character.

At the same pace that mankind masters nature, man seems to become enslaved to other men or to his own infamy. Even the pure light of science seems unable to shine but on the dark background of ignorance. All our invention and progress seem to result in endowing material forces with intellectual life, and in stultifying human life into a material force.

This antagonism between modern industry and science on the one hand, modern misery and dissolution on the other hand; this antagonism between the productive powers and the social relations of our epoch is a fact, palpable, overwhelming, and not to be controverted. Some parties may wail over it; others may wish to get rid of modern arts, in order to get rid of modern conflicts. Or they may imagine that so signal a progress in industry wants to be completed by as signal a regress in politics. On our part, we do not mistake the shape of the shrewd spirit that continues to mark all these contradictions. We know that to work well the newfangled forces of society, they only want to be mastered by newfangled men — and such are the working men. They are as much the invention of modern time as machinery itself.

History is the judge. Its executioner, the proletarian.

Enjoy Reid’s article, along with some images from productions of the Czech playwright Karel Čapek’s RUR (or Rossum’s Universal Robots).

eric-aluminum_man_0-x640 maxresdefault ENGLAND - JANUARY 01:  A robot, that talks and moves: Mr. Refell, inventor and engineer from Surrey completes his radio-controlled automatic wight, which will inaugurate the Model Engineering Exhibition in the Royal Horticultural Hall in London. Photography around 1935.  (Photo by Imagno/Getty Images) [Ein Roboter, der spricht und sich bewegt: Mr. Refell, Erfinder und Motor-Ingenieur aus Surrey, legt letzte Hand an seinen radiogesteuerten mechanischen Menschen, der die Model Engineering Exhibition in der Londoner Royal Horticultural Hall eroeffnen wird. Photographie um 1935.] eric_aluminum_man_1 Eric-rur-topfoto-120111_imagno 500004916-05-01 EricRUR1 tumblr_mtntuslfJc1rws5eco1_500 Ericopeningmodelexhibition1928 Eric_DRKp2 eric-ROBOTS -COVER-BY- PETER- TYBUS-x640 500004758-03-01 11 Feb 1938, Haringay, Outer London, London, England, UK --- A scene of a television production of , or Rossum's Universal Robots, by Czech playwright Karel Capek, which introduced the term "Robot" into many of the world's languages. (l to r) Connaught Stanleigh, Derek Bond, Larry Silverstone and front, Evan John --- Image by © BBC/Corbis EricHeadP1(1) Eric_DRKp1 rur-robot 131114171215-eric-robot-richards-tea-horizontal-large-gallery Eric-Richards rur

Against accelerationism, for Marxism

Reid Kane

.

Reblogged from barbarie della reflessione

.
To the extent that left accelerationists draw upon Marx, they are reflecting Marx’s recognition of the positive historical role capitalism can and must play, specifically in its capacity to develop the forces of production, increasing intensively and extensively the productivity of human activity.

Yet insofar as they reject the dialectic, they lose Marx’s crucial political insight. This developmental dynamic is intimately tied to the struggle of the working class to increase value of its labor power, and thus to diminish the need to work. Yet technology is employed not to emancipate the worker from the need to work, but from the opportunity to do so, and thus to emancipate the capitalist from the worker. It is employed in order to drive down the value of labor power, precisely to the point at which their labor-power becomes cheaper than “labor-saving” alternatives.

In other words, the development of the productive forces comes into conflict with the existing relations of production. Wage workers, displaced by machinery, are proletarianized, deprived of access to the means of subsistence they collectively produce.

It was precisely this tendency that Marx saw “accelerating” with the completion of the bourgeois revolutions. Yet he did not advocate it simply because it led to technological advancement, but because it forced the proletariat to organize itself to mediate the deprivation they faced. As the population threatened with and afflicted by proletarianization would grow in proportion to industry, the organizations of the proletariat would be forced to express the common interests of the “immense majority” of the population “without distinction of sex or race,” and to face the possibility, and the need, of taking political power. These interests would coincide in the abolition of private property in the means of production, which would be appropriated by the proletarian dictatorship and applied for the common benefit of all.

In other words, the acceleration of the development of productive forces (or “technology”) under capitalism creates a potential for emancipation that manifests negatively — freedom from any means of production of their own — as a problem that can only be solved politically.

“Acceleration” is ambivalent; it is regressive in that it is the mechanism by which the conditions of the working class are forced downwards, but progressive to the extent that this is mediated by political radicalization. The latter can be headed off by compromises that divide the proletariat in different ways (between nations, or within nations on the basis of race, gender, nationality), but in the end dependence on the bourgeoisie for concessions will undermine the impetus for independent proletarian organizations, which erode, in turn undermining the bourgeoisie’s impetus to keep those concessions in place. And so those elements of the working class suspended in the middle strata fall back into the proletariat (e.g. “neoliberalism”).

To the extent that the accelerationists are calling for reforms (most notably, universal basic income) that would subsidize the proletarian condition, they would undermine the very source of the progressive dynamic that Marx sought to “accelerate” — not the advancement of technology, but the advancement of the organizational and political development of the working class. Who, after all, would pass such a reform? What political agency has, or could have, the motive and the capacity to do so? In the context of capitalist society, such a reform would only be a measure of political warfare — not against the working people, but against the working class as self-consciously organized.

Against Accelerationism – For Marxism.


Fauxcahontas: On Andrea Smith, colonialism, and “authenticity”

$
0
0

.
The Andrea Smith debacle likely won’t get as much play as the Rachel Doležal incident from a few weeks back. In my opinion, though, Smith is way worse than Doležal. Not only has she been lying about her heritage for more than two decades, she’s positioned herself as a major theorist within “decolonial” studies and discourse. Her papers are still widely cited across the field, author of the hugely influential Conquest: Sexual Violence and American Indian Genocide and an editor for Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education, and Society, as well as the collection Theorizing Native Studies. Smith is much more prominent intellectually and institutionally in indigenous politics than Doležal ever was in black politics.

Most of the reactions I came across on social media regarding Smith were of shocked disbelief, especially those that showed some prior familiarity with her work and awareness of her standing as a leading theoretician of decoloniality. “Wow — Andrea Smith has been a force,” remarks one. “All built on a lie about identity.” Clearly surprised, another recalls: “Just found out Andrea Smith was faking her indigenous ancestry. It went on so long. Her work was big when I was in uni in 2005.” Zehra Husain exclaims, incredulous: “What? What? Andrea Smith?”

Those who’d studied her texts closely were hit even harder by the news. “This is really surprising and troubling as someone who has studied her work,” one student writes. Ayanna Dozier reacts similarly: “Well, damn. This is very upsetting. I have to rethink my relationship to Andrea Smith’s work.” Matt Jaber Stiffler candidly admits: “Andrea Smith was on my dissertation committee. Feeling torn today.”

Others are more apologetic. “Andrea Smith enhanced the debate, the conversation, the thinking, the thought,” Rinaldo Walcott maintains. “Regardless of Andrea Smith’s identity, the power and clarity of her seminal work Conquest cannot be denied. It still informs my thinking,” expresses another.  “Opportunistic white people should keep their mouths on the Andrea Smith case,” opined Karen Macrae, herself white.

Joanne Barker of the Delaware Tribe published a fairly scathing critique of Smith, though. Entitled “Rachel Doležal and Andrea Smith: Integrity, Ethics, Accountability, Identity,” it anticipated the charges against Smith would be met with defensive and dismissive responses, “including criticisms of those who did the circulating [of information] as witch-hunters, mean-spirited, lacking logic, not knowing what they were talking about, and the like.” Klee Benally, another well known indigenous activist, immediately leapt to Smith’s defense, confirming this prediction. She publicly decried what she called

a witch hunt against fierce feminist author and friend, Andy Smith. While I’m not privy to all that’s been published, so far I’ve read Barker’s response and a couple others. Her statements eerily evoke COINTELPRO bad-jacketing rather than Indigenous feminism. Reading it I couldn’t help ask myself what interests are served via this pillory?

When Ward Churchill’s identity was called into question it clearly served a conservative agenda. My position then was that his identity is between him and the creator and an issue for his family and Nation to address internally through their own cultural process. After all, the primary issues regard accountability, colonialism, and white supremacy. I still maintain that his political contributions shouldn’t be uncritically thrown out when challenged with the colonial institution of “blood-quantum.”

And here we Marxists thought colonialism meant the dispossession and oppression of the native population in order to create a racially-structured, low-cost workforce. Turns out colonialism is actually just being mean to self-proclaimed representatives of “the indigenous.” What a silly and inconsequential thing colonialism would be, in that case.

Such suspicions are not entirely unjustified. Churchill, the scholar who Benally mentioned above, has detailed a long history of infiltration and counterintelligence pursued by the federal government against the Amerindian movement (before serious inconsistencies were noticed in several statements he made concerning his own ancestry). The Trotskyist International Socialist Organization, or ISO, has raised similar doubts about those making accusations within their milieu.

However, all of the documents compiled regarding Smith’s heritage seem to be vetted and verified. If the allegations are true — and Smith is not only not Cherokee, but is not of native descent at all — then there is no more damning critic of her actions than Smith herself. As she wrote in her 1994 article, “For All Those Who Were Indian In A Former Life”:

When white “feminists” see how white people have historically oppressed others and how they are coming very close to destroying the earth, they often want to disassociate themselves from their whiteness. They do this by opting to “become Indian.” In this way, they can escape responsibility and accountability for white racism. Of course, white “feminists” want to become only partly Indian. They do not want to be part of our struggles for survival against genocide, and they do not want to fight for treaty rights or an end to substance abuse or sterilization abuse. They do not want to do anything that would tarnish their romanticized notions of what it means to be an Indian.

Moreover, they want to become Indian without holding themselves accountable to Indian communities. If they did they would have to listen to Indians telling them to stop carrying around sacred pipes, stop doing their own sweat lodges and stop appropriating our spiritual practices. Rather, these New Agers see Indians as romanticized gurus who exist only to meet their consumerist needs. Consequently, they do not understand our struggles for survival and thus they can have no genuine understanding of Indian spiritual practices.

“The work of Andrea Smith does not excuse her blatant disrespect toward and appropriation of the experiences of Native American women,” writes one commentator, stating the obvious. Less egregious than the scandal surrounding The Education of Little Tree (1976), a children’s book about a wee lad growing up between two worlds: the alienating world of “white” modernity on the one hand, and the mystical organic Volksgemeinschaft of his Cherokee grandfather on the other. Everyone ate it up like pigs at a trough, including prominent Native Americans who affirmed that the author clearly must be a genuine native. It won awards, was taught in schools. Some diligent indigenous scholars later found out toward the end of the 1970s that the author was in fact white. And not just any white man, either, but Asa Earl Carter (using the pseudonym “Forrest”). Carter was a notorious white supremacist and a speechwriter for George Wallace. He’d written the infamous “segregation now, segregation forever!” speech a decade or so earlier.

One has to love this category, “authenticity.” It seizes on a real shortcoming within bourgeois society, the persistence of injustice and inequality, and then redirects this recognition to reactionary ends, embracing the perceived irrationalism of that which escapes civilizational norms. “The bourgeois form of rationality has always needed irrational supplements in order to maintain itself as what it is, continuing injustice through justice,” wrote Theodor Adorno in The Jargon of Authenticity. “Such irrationality in the midst of the rational is the working atmosphere of authenticity. The latter can support itself on the fact that over a long period of time literal as well as figurative mobility, a main element in bourgeois equality, always turned into injustice for those who could not entirely keep up.”

Smith’s fakery is more along the lines of Ward Churchill than Rachel Doležal or Binjamin Wilkomirski, let alone Forrest Carter. Outrageous nevertheless. Probably the sickest burn I came across online, however, caustically observed that “[t]here are plenty of members of the Wanabi tribe.” Inverting the title of Glen S. Coulthard’s recent book, Red Skin, White Masks, we might say that Andrea Smith is a case of someone with white skin who wears a red mask. Fauxcahontas, then?


No, Žižek did not attribute a Goebbels quote to Gramsci

$
0
0

.
After I debunked Molly Klein’s baseless claim that Žižek was the editor of the Ljubljana student zine Tribuna when it printed a translation of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a few of her dimwitted supporters kept saying that I was focusing too much on this one claim and ignoring the mountain of other “evidence” she’d compiled regarding the Slovenian philosopher. So I figured I’d have a crack at another of her outrageous claims.

By the way, I swear to god this is the last one of these things I’m going to write. Klein’s modus operandi seems to go something like this:

  1. Make as many ridiculous and poorly researched, half-literate claims as possible.
  2. If anyone disputes one of your claims or clearly demonstrates that it’s incorrect, either ignore him/her or
    1. accuse them of ignoring all the other “legitimate” criticisms she’s advanced.
    2. simply continue making same ridiculous claims despite direct evidence disproving them.
  3. Repeat.

For bonus points, call everyone a “fascist” or suggest that they’re a “psyop.” Žižek doesn’t really need my help. Still, it’s fun to bear up on feeble-minded frauds like Klein. Enjoy the carnage below.

.
UPDATE (7/2/2015): Another spurious claim Molly has repeatedly made is that Žižek deliberately conflated a pair of quotes by two quite distinct individuals. Namely, the Nazi propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, and the Italian Marxist, Antonio Gramsci. It so happens that the quote in question is one of Žižek’s favorites. He likes to use it a lot. So it appears in several of his texts, not just the article he wrote for New Left Review. At any rate, the quote Žižek attributes to Gramsci runs as follows: “The old world is dying, and the new world struggles to be born: now is the time of monsters.”

Recent photo of myself alongside fellow Twitter proles doing battle with Molly Klein the foul monster pictured at the top

Recent photo of myself alongside other nameless Twitter proles doing battle with Molly Klein the grotesque monster pictured at the top

Klein is convinced for some unknown reason that Žižek is in fact quoting Goebbels, with slight modifications added to throw readers off the scent. She laid it all out in a blog post a few years back. “Needless to say,” remarked Klein, “Gramsci said no such thing.” Following this there is a long quotation from the original Italian, though only one line from it was relevant: La crisi consiste appunto nel fatto che il vecchio muore e il nuovo non può nascere: in questo interregno si verificano i fenomeni morbosi piú svariati. Rendered more literally into English, as the 1971 International Publishers edition does, it reads: “The crisis consists precisely in the fact that the old is dying and the new cannot be born, in this interregnum a great variety of morbid symptoms appear.”

Indeed, from this it would seem that Žižek either translated Gramsci very loosely, or is substituting a different quote for Gramsci’s entirely. Where could Žižek have gotten it from? Naturally, Klein’s first instinct is to look for some source in the annals of Nazism that resembles the one Žižek supposedly put in the mouth of Gramsci. A few keyword searches on Google and there you have it — gold, jackpot, Goebbels! “We know today that the old world is dying and that we are seeing the struggle for a new world,” the propaganda minister wrote in 1939, a few months before his country plunged Europe into war. Somewhat similar, sure. “Old world” and “new world” vs. “the old” and “the new.” Klein concludes: “that is Goebbels via Žižek passed off as Gramsci.”

Here is Klein’s gloss on these respective renderings, compressed from a Twitter rant spread out over several Tweets. I’ll try to translate her social media gibberish into English:

“Now is the time of monsters” is not an “interpretation” of the Gramsci passage. It’s a substitution. If NLR readers are ready to insist that Gramsci called anarchism a “monster” and that Stalin boasted of his will to mass murder, then Žižek’s been successful. But there’s more. He is selling Goebbel’s vision (Old World dying, New World struggling to be born) and exhorting his audience to admire and embrace those glamorous monsters (Thatcher of the Left, Adolf Hitler who’s violent enough) to bring it about. In the context of his oeuvre, what he’s doing is obvious and his sources too.

It makes me crazy. Gramsci wrote in “The Crisis of Authority”: “The crisis [of authority] is happening because the old [authority] is dying and the new one can’t be born. In this interregnum we see a great variety of neurotic/pathological/extreme phenomena.” Goebbels wrote: “The old world is dying and we are seeing the struggle for the New World…[Molly fails to mention that this next line comes several paragraphs later]…The 2000 year old Christian age is dying and a new National Socialist world under Adolph Hitler is being born.” Žižek ended his NLR piece, right after traducing Stalin, with the fake quote “The old world is dying and the new world struggles to be born. Now is the time of monsters.”

Who is he repeating? Obviously it’s Goebbels and the Nazi myth. It has nothing in common at all with Gramsci’s remarks. Nothing. The meaning as well as the vocabulary is Goebbels’. The only thing Žižek changes of Goebbels’ is that instead of “Adolph Hitler” he writes “monsters.” The sense of his contentions, to the degree they have one, is the same Hitlerian revival he is always advocating, now is the time for the Thatcher of the Left, for the Hitler who is violent enough. For the “terrifyingly wonderful” solution for “warriors” who have to exterminate people that Himmler found in the Baghavad Gita: “just do it.” The slightest acquaintance with Gramsci is sufficient to know he did not reproduce this Nazi mythological grandiosity.

Really? Do the Nazis have some sort of monopoly over the symbolism of an “old world” dying and a “new world” being born? Not if you’ve read John Reed’s Ten Days that Shook the World (of course Molly hasn’t), in which he has Zinoviev saying in 1918: “There is no force in the world which can put out the fire of the Revolution! The old world crumbles down, the new world begins…” Or take this speech by Lenin in December 1921: “Unfortunately, there are now two worlds: the old world of capitalism that is in a state of confusion but which will never surrender voluntarily, and the rising new world, which is still very weak, but which will grow, for it is invincible.”

Clearly this “vocabulary” was widespread enough for figures as different as Goebbels and Lenin to both employ it. And Lenin obviously first. The source of Klein’s confusion is far more banal than this, however. If she had bothered to even just read the Italian Wikipedia entry on Gramsci — though this would require that she know Italian, which she doesn’t — she would know that Žižek either freely translated from a famous French mistranslation of Gramsci or copied someone else’s free English translation from the same. From the Wikipedia:

Antonio Gramsci a défini la crise par la célèbre citation : « La crise consiste justement dans le fait que l’ancien meurt et que le nouveau ne peut pas naître : pendant cet interrègne on observe les phénomènes morbides les plus variés » (dans la traduction française des Cahiers de prison parue aux Éditions Gallimard sous la responsabilité de Robert Paris: Cahier 3, §34, p. 283). La seconde partie de la citation est souvent traduite de manière imprécise par « Le vieux monde se meurt, le nouveau monde tarde à apparaître et dans ce clair-obscur surgissent les monstres ». Le texte original en italien est «in questo interregno si verificano i fenomeni morbosi più svariati». La traduction « poétique » n’est pas référée : ce n’est ni la traduction des éditions Gallimard, ni celle des Éditions sociales.

Le vieux monde se meurt, le nouveau monde tarde à apparaître et dans ce clair-obscur surgissent les monstres = The old world is dying, and the new world struggles to be born: now is the time of monsters.

Pretty much an exact translation into English of the faulty French translation of the Italian. Žižek doesn’t know Italian, as far as I’m aware, but since he cites untranslated French works I assume he does know French. Anyway, the more “poetic” French rendering of this passage has since become so famous that it’s even been translated back into Italian. Do a search for Il vecchio mondo sta morendo. Quello nuovo tarda a comparire. E in questo chiaroscuro nascono i mostri. You’ll get hits.

I know what you’re thinking. What if the French seized on Žižek’s own spurious translation of “Gramsci” into English and translated it back into French. That Žižek destroys kids in every living language. Oh wait, nevermind. Here’s an old French article from 2006 that uses the phrase. And a book by totally different author, from 2003, which uses “Le vieux monde se meurt, le nouveau monde tarde à apparaître et dans ce clair-obscur surgissent les monstres.” Look, there’s a bogpost written by Kamal Ahlbib’s blog in 2008.

Next thing you know Klein will be saying that these full French quotes were retroactively inserted and backdated to discredit her discovery of Žizek’s “Goebbelsian” translation motives.

So no, Žižek didn’t try to pass off Goebbels as Gramsci. Molly Klein is just an idiot.


Nothing new to see here: Towards a critique of communization

$
0
0

Donald Parkinson
Communist League
June 30, 2015

.
Originally posted at Communist League Tampa

.
Awaiting the release of Endnotes 4, I decided to write a critique of the broad tendency of communization, focusing specifically on Dauvé and Theorie Communiste. Quite a few have asked me for a critique of Endnotes and communization theory more broadly, seeing as I mentioned these things briefly in my earlier piece Towards a Communist Left. So I decided to elaborate on my critique of these currents as well as provide a critical introduction to communization in general.

Communization must be placed within the context of the overall defeat of proletarian struggles in the 20th century. This defeat in many ways led to a crisis in Marxism, where increasingly isolated theorists looked to innovate and break from orthodoxy in order to “save” Marxist theory and politics. Sometimes breaks with orthodoxy are necessary. Yet there is also a danger of needlessly breaking with orthodoxy in the name of theoretical innovation, when instead the result is just a repetition of past bad politics. While communization theory does make the occasional interesting insight and serve as a useful theoretical foil, it is largely the case that what it offers is not a fresh new perspective for Marxist politics but a repeat of Kropotkinist and Sorelian critiques of Marxism with more theoretical sophistication.

Communization refers to relatively broad tendency of writers and journals that don’t all agree on everything. When referring to communization one has to be careful what they say, as there is as much divergence amongst “communizers” as there is ideological unity. Overall what unites this tendency is a belief that revolution will have to immediately establish communist relations of production from day one, that an immediate break from waged labor, commodity production and the value-form is to be favored as opposed to an approach where the working class holds political power and dismantles capitalism in a transition period that may temporarily maintain aspects of capitalism. Added to this is a general hostility to organized politics and anything resembling “old forms” like parties, councils, and unions.

Overall communization can fall into two camps: Gilles Dauvé’s “normative” communization and Theorie Communiste’s “structuralist” theory of communization. The key differences between these tendencies can be found in Volume 1 of Endnotes, essentially a debate between Dauvé and Theorie Communiste. In his pamphlet When Insurrections Die, Dauvé puts forward the thesis that the proletariat failed in past revolutions because it didn’t make a sufficient break with waged labor, opting for self-management and collectivization instead where labor vouchers replaced money. Using Spain as his example, Dauvé argues that these revolutions failed because they aimed to manage the proletarian condition rather than abolish it, therefore reproducing capitalism in a different form. Therefore the idea of a transition period where the proletariat raises itself to the ruling class within a decaying capitalism is to be rejected in favor of the immediate “self-abolition” of the proletariat.

Dauvé’s work is in many ways an attempt to square the insights of older left communists like Anton Pannekoek and Amadeo Bordiga with the ideas of the Situationist International. Dauvé is just as critical of workers councils managing production as he is critical of the party-form, opting for an approach that focuses on the content of revolution, this content being an immediate break with waged labor and money aka communization. For Dauvé the abolition of value is key to revolution, something that can not be achieved gradually or “by half steps” but in the process of insurrection itself. This means rejecting any kind of scheme involving “labor vouchers” or “labor notes” where labor-time is directly measured to determine the worker’s access to the social product, even if these measures are merely temporary transitional steps towards communism.

Dauvé makes many important points, many of which are reiterations of classic left communist politics (for example, rejecting the anti-fascist popular front). Bringing value and its abolition back into the picture is certainly important, reminding us that communism is not simply a better way of managing capitalist forms but a radical break from wage labor and the commodity-form itself. His critiques of councilist formalism and workers self-management also are welcome as antidotes to many ideas among the anti-Stalinist left that act as if Stalinism would work if more self-management existed (PARECON comes to mind). It’s also a move away from traditional leftist workerism, that valorizes workers as workers rather than a class which abolishes itself and all other classes. Putting the transformation of social relations at the heart of communist revolution is certainly a step forward. Yet Dauvé has little to suggest how this can be achieved, only stating that Kautksy and Lenin’s formula of merging socialism with the workers movement is to be avoided because communism is imminent to the struggle of labor against capital.

Theorie Communiste responds to Dauvé by accusing his argument of essentially being tautological: the communist movement failed because it failed to produce communism. For Theorie Communiste, Dauvé sees communism as a normative essence within the proletariat itself, and that past revolutions failed because the proletariat failed to live up to this essence or are betrayed by managers and chose to manage capitalism instead of create communism. Dauvé fails to answer the question of why the workers didn’t create communism, and instead simply states the obvious. Rather than being some essence to the proletariat, Theorie Communiste see communism as a product of the historical periodization of capitalism, which is itself a series of cycles of contradictions between the proletariat and capital.

For Theorie Communiste the “why” question of why workers didn’t create communism is answered by the concept of programmatism. Programmatism basically means the “old workers’ movement” which was all about affirming the proletarian condition rather than abolishing it. This is meant to describe the entire workers movement of the past, not just its more reformist elements, describing all politics where “revolution is thus the affirmation of the proletariat, whether as a dictatorship of the proletariat, workers’ councils, the liberation of work, a period of transition, the withering of the state, generalized self-management, or a “society of associated producers.” Programmatism in this theory is not a means towards communism, but a product of capitalism in the phase of “formal subsumption” transitioning into the more advanced phase of “real subsumption.” This phase decomposed in the period of the 1920s to the 1970s, leading to today’s modern phase of “real subsumption” where capitalism has fully dominated the proletariat. Programmatism created a “worker identity” that allowed for an affirmation of the proletariat that is now no longer possible, and therefore there can only be the complete negation of the proletarian condition through its immediate self-abolition.

This argument, while more sophisticated than Dauvé’s, essentially reduces the entire workers movement to a means of capitalist development and claims that all along communism was impossible until (conveniently) now. Yet why this era will produce communism when all class struggle in the past simply affirmed capital is never explained. Without the millenarian expectations of apocalyptic revolution Theorie Communiste’s theory simply would argue that communism is impossible. It also completely writes off the actual possibility of organizing politically and developing a real strategy to defeat capitalism, since any attempt to organize the proletariat to abolish itself would mean organizing it as a class within capitalism and therefore affirming it. As a result the only way forward will be spontaneous outbursts that develop to the point of some kind of “rupture with the wage relation.” Theorie Communiste and Dauvé have very similar positions when it comes to their actual political conclusions, which is that revolution will not have a transition based on a dictatorship of the proletariat organized in parties and councils but see an immediate move towards communism, where value is abolished and free access to all goods is established. They just come to these conclusions from different theoretical reckonings. Theorie Communiste are ultra-determinist, almost to the point of being fatalist, while Dauvé seems to suggest communism was possible all along if the workers made the right choices.

In this sense they theorize the conclusions of the anarchist Kropotkin, who imagined a revolution taking the form of local communities spontaneously establishing common access to all property and federating with each other as needed without any kind of transition where the proletariat would hold state power. Kropotkin came from a time where self-sufficient peasants were far more prominent as well as their spontaneous outbursts, making his politics a bit more believable and easier to sell. While Dauvé and Theorie Communiste don’t spell out the localist implications of their theory, the idea that there must be immediate communization does strongly suggest that in a revolutionary situation isolated regions would attempt essentially autarkic communism rather than making any kind of compromises with the old order. Other adherents of communization, like Jasper Bernes in his essay Logistics, Counterlogistics, and the Communist Project do essentially spell this out. Bernes argues the complexity of the global division of labor means revolutionary zones would have to trade with other nations to operate capitalist means of production. Bernes writes off the idea of trade since this would entail temporarily holding onto aspects of capitalism, instead suggesting that revolutionaries won’t be able to operate most capitalist forces of production. How this strategy will be capable of feeding people in a crisis situation never seems to cross his mind. At least communization theorist Bruno Astarian in his article Communization as a Way Out of the Crisis openly admits that people may have to starve for his schemes to work out:

Finally, there is always the chance that the supply of flour for our bakers will be sporadic, at least at first, if the proletarians at the mill prefer to discuss the meaning of love or life instead of grinding wheat. Would this lead to chaos? We shall be told that today there will be no bread. You just have to accept it. Another alternative is that someone conceives a plan, quantified and taking time scales into account, and someone else complies with its terms. In such a case not only is value reestablished. In fact, a proletarian experience of this kind has no future: if it works the proletarians will rapidly lose their rights (restoration of wage labor in one form or another); if it does not work they will return to the old framework of unemployment and unpaid wages. It is likely, in any event, that the communizing solution will not be considered until various chess matches of this kind have tried and found wanting.

What all of this ignores is that communism isn’t possible on a local scale, and that “true” communism where value has been completely abolished will require the co-operation of all of humanity utilizing the the worlds collective productive forces. This reason alone explains why immediate communization is not possible, with transition being a necessity imposed by objective circumstances rather than the will of revolutionaries. It also misses the basic Marxist insight that it is capitalism that creates the conditions for communism in the sense of creating a globalized society (with a global class, the proletariat) with forces of production that are developed enough to allow humanity to pursue a life beyond endless toil and starvation.

Immediate communization is also impossible because of the realities of specialization under capitalism, where a large and essentially petty-bourgeois strata of professionals with skill-sets necessary for the reproduction of society (surgeons for example) are able to use their monopolies on skills and information to assert a privileged position above proletarians in society. This strata would have much reason to resist communism and withhold their skills at the expense of society to assert material privileges. As a result concessions would have to given to this strata until their skill monopolies can be broken through the collective reorganization of production and education in a way to challenge the very basis of the mental/manual division of labor. Such a process would not happen overnight, problematizing the notion that a immediate transcendence of capitalism is possible. In other words transition isn’t something revolutionaries choose but something imposed by objective conditions. Communism must be created from the raw material produced by capitalism, raw materials that aren’t as malleable as the “revolutionary will” of communists would like them to be.

Some communization theorists go as far as to reject the notion that the proletariat is a “revolutionary subject” at all, while offering only ambiguity as to what could replace it. While Dauvé seems to maintain some notion of the proletariat as the revolutionary agent other writers like Woland from SIC write about a “revolutionary (non-)subject” that takes from the form of the rioter. A common theme in modern communization theory is the riot as the main form of struggle in this period. According to the communization group Blaumachen we are currently living in the “Era of Riots,” where the absence of strikes and prominence of riots signals the replacement of proletarian affirmation with proletarian abolition. The rioter doesn’t affirm any kind of proletarian identity through forming class-based institutions, but instead directly acts to negate capitalist relations and the state. It is seen as a form of practice that cannot be recuperated, as though the content of the riot itself is the content of communism. While it is not clear who this new subject is, it is clear what it will do: riot. The Endnotes groups seems to suggest the basis for this new revolutionary subject lies in the existence of “surplus populations,” or those formally excluded from the wage relation.

There is nothing new about rejecting the proletariat as the revolutionary subject yet trying to maintain some kind of revolutionary anti-capitalist ideology. In early 20th century in intellectuals like Georges Sorel, Edouard Berth, and Robert Michels responded to the popularity of reformist and electoral social-democratic parties as opposed to a more active and violent class struggle by questioning the notion of socialist revolution being based in the rational class interests of the proletariat. This circle of intellectuals, detailed in Sternhell’s The Birth of Fascist Ideology, developed out of the syndicalist movement and diverged from classical marxism in a variety of ways. Sorel would develop a cult of action based on the general strike as the myth that would drive the proletariat to rebel rather than any kind of objective class interest. Berth and Michels took it a step further and argued the working class was not a revolutionary agent at all, with working class organization no longer a necessity for socialism. This abandonment of class and embrace of vitalist voluntarism led many intellectuals in this circle to embrace the nation as the revolutionary subject, becoming ideological influences on fascism.

The New Left of the 1960s and 1970s also saw similar ideas that aimed to abandon the proletariat, the most notable being Herbert Marcuse’s One-Dimensional Man. While Sorel and Michels were responding to the rise of reformism Marcuse saw consumer society as the main factor integrating the working class into capitalism and pacifying it. Robbed of any dialectical opposition to capitalism by the lures of consumer society the proles were simply “one-dimensional men” with no antagonistic relation to the system. Yet for Marcuse there was still hope in the “great refusal” which would be led by third world resistance movements, student rebellions and a vague ‘oppressed’. What this looked like in practice was a fractured collection of identity and nationalist movements that were incapable of finding a commonality in the basis of class and instead became integrated into public-interest liberalism.

While the communization theorists who express doubt or even disdain for the potential of the proletariat to act as a revolutionary subject operate in a different context and with a different discourse from the Sorelians and Marcuse they are both generally informed by a sort of “worry about workers.” While the Sorelian lamented the rise of parliamentary reformism in favor of a more directly antagonistic syndicalist inspired by heroic myths, Marcuse was responding to the ‘post-war compromise’ where Keynesian policies were able to temporarily win a better deal for (sections of) workers under capitalist democracies. Today communization theorists are responding to the general tendencies of de-industrialization in the core economies, where a shift towards service and retail type labor in favor of manufacturing has largely made traditional labor organizing impotent. There indeed is no denying that in the US the typical proletarian is not a muscular factory worker who identifies with their labor and wants self-management but rather someone working in a call center or McDonald’s under precarious conditions.

It is clear that the class composition and terrain of class struggle today is different from the past, and that a simple strategy of building labor parties out of trade unions won’t cut it. Yet pointing to the decline of unions and today’s explosive riots to claim that “programmatism” is now impossible seems like an overreaction to new conditions. Truth is that the shift towards de-industrialization, service economies, and precariousness is a big blow to the traditional forms and tactics of organized labor. Yet the inherent antagonism between capital and labor and the need for workers to organize as a class within capital is there as much as ever. So while the need for class based organization on the economic front is still with us workers as a class have yet to learn how to struggle on this new class terrain. This won’t happen overnight, but will be a trial and error process that will require a break with the traditional union apparatus to open room for experimentation in tactics and strategy. It is arguable with the recent strikes in Spain of “pseudo self-employed” telecom workers that this process is happening before our eyes. We have to realize that the proletariat is not a class ready-made for revolution at any moment in history but rather must form as a class into a collective subject through creating its own institutions in society. The proletariat derives it’s social power not from the ability to shut down production but from its ability to organize as an entire class and pose an institutional alternative to the old society. This will mean reviving the “programmatism” that Theorie Communiste claim is now permanently dead.

The “worry about workers” that haunts communization theorists is hardly a new phenomena. During any period of reaction or slow-down in the class struggle impatient revolutionaries will question the notion of a proletarian revolution and look elsewhere for revolutionary subjectivity if not completely giving up hope in Marxist politics. This is not necessarily consistent among all adherents of communization however. As mentioned earlier, Gilles Dauvé tends to maintain the notion of a proletarian subject while Endnotes has a more ambiguous position. Yet what all the proponents of communization do seem to have in common is a hostility to any of the “old forms” of worker organization, such as parties, councils, and unions. In fact there seems to be a hostility to the very notion that the proletariat can form mass organizations within capitalism that can be a basis for the overthrow of capitalism. The whole approach seems to hinge on a spontaneous rupture with the value-form that will create entirely novel forms in the process of struggle itself, with struggles themselves taking up communizing measures of out necessity. While there is legitimacy to the notion that new forms of class organization arise in struggles, this reliance on spontaneity offers little to conscious communists in terms of moving forward in formulating a coherent revolutionary strategy. Overall communization theorists are too quick to dismiss the “old forms” as completely obsolete due to new conditions. When it comes to pointing out these new conditions journals like Endnotes do have much of value to say, yet when it comes to explaining why exactly these changes make old forms fully obsolete the answers are very abstract and unconvincing.

In the end communization theory isn’t a progression or advancement in Marxism, but a repeat of past bad politics. In the same way that 1970s urban guerrilla groups like the Weather Underground repeated the arguments of Nardonik terrorists from Russia in the late 19th century, arguments regarding the transition period are mostly a return to the ideas of Kropotkin but phrased through citations of Marx’s Capital and Grundrisse. On the other hand the search for a “revolutionary (non-)subject” that some communizers like Woland of SIC espouse is just repeat of pessimism about the working class from the Sorelian revisionists or the Marcuse inspired wing of the New Left.

Breaks from orthodoxy may not always be as innovative as they initially seem and simply open the door to confusing or dangerous ideas instead of a way to move forward. Communization theorists in many ways create a vision of revolution so idealistic and abstract that revolution basically becomes impossible. The vision of a millenarian rupture that immediately breaks with capitalism may be an appealing fantasy but in the end is simply a fantasy. The result of recent waves of spontaneous riots in Ukraine and Greece was Euromaidan and Syriza’s government respectively. Solving political questions and changing society requires positive program and the organizational capacity to pose an alternative to the current regime. If it is indeed true that these are relics of the past (“programmatism”) then communism is basically impossible.



Moisei Ginzburg’s constructivist masterpiece: Narkomfin during the 1930s

$
0
0

.
Recently I happened across a cache of extremely rare photos of Moisei Ginzburg’s constructivist masterpiece, Dom Narkomfin, in Moscow. They are reproduced here along with a brief popular exposition of the building’s history and current status by Athlyn Cathcart-Keays, which I thought quite good (despite an overly personalized narrative). Most of the photos were taken by three different individuals:

  1. Charles Dedoyard, a Frenchman and contributor to the avant-garde journal L’Architecture d’aujourd’hui;
  2. Vladimir Gruntal, a noted constructivist photographer and member of Rodchenko’s October Association; and
  3. Robert Byron, a British travel writer and Byzantine historian known for his deep appreciation of architecture.

It’s difficult for me to say whose photographs of Narkomfin I like best, as each capture very different “moods” of the building. Byron’s are dark, brooding, and ominous, while those of Gruntal and Dedoyard are comparatively sunny, vivacious, and light. Someone who knows more about photography, especially architectural photography, might say more about them. Ginzburg’s revolutionary communal housing structure is as photogenic as ever, though the real complexity of the building tends to get lost in single snapshots (whether taken indoors or from the outside). Hopefully I’ll be writing a longer article on Narkomfin soon. Please contact me if you’d like to publish it.

Lately, apart from work, I’ve been wasting far too much time antagonizing tankies on Twitter — defending friends and Slavoj Žižek along the way — instead of spending it on more productive ventures. They’re young, and I’m bored, but it’s not like my trolling and ceaseless mockery will persuade them of anything. So I apologize to anyone I’ve offended these past several weeks. From now on, I’ll try to redirect my energies to more fruitful ends. Besides a few pieces I’ve already written and have stowed on the backburners, I think I’m going to finally finish that book for Zer0. Enjoy these for now.

Charles Dedoyard
Dedoyard, C. Exterior view of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow September 1932 Dedoyard, C.  Exterior view of the Narkomfin (People's Commissariat for Finance) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, September 1932b Dedoyard, C.  Exterior view of the Narkomfin (People's Commissariat for Finance) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, September 1932a Dedoyard, C.  Exterior view of the Narkomfin (People's Commissariat for Finance) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, September 1932 Dedoyard, C.  Exterior view of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, September 1932

Vladimir Gruntal

Gruntal, V.G.  Exterior view of the communal centre of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building showing a communal space [?], 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of Nikolai Milutin's apartment in the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building from the upper level showing a built-in cupboard and a desk, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of Nikolai Milutin's apartment in the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building from the upper level, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G. Photograph of a perspective drawing for the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, before 1929 Gruntal, V.G.  Exterior view of the pilotis of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Partial view of the garden façade of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930c Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of Nikolai Milutin's apartment showing the built-in kitchen, People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G. Interior view of Nikolai Milutin's apartment showing the built-in wall unit in the dining room [?] which opens onto the built-in kitchen, Narkomfin Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Partial view of the garden façade of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building showing the roof garden, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Exterior view of the pilotis of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow,, after 1930a Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of Moisei Ginzburg's studio in the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building showing a woman seated at a desk, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow  after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of an entrance to the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building showing a bulletin board, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of Nikolai Milutin's apartment in the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building showing the upper level, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of Nikolai Milutin's apartment in the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building showing the upper level, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930a Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building showing a corridor, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Partial view of the lateral façade of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building showing the elevated walkway, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Partial view of the garden façade of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930 Gruntal, V.G.  Interior view of the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin) Apartment Building showing stairs, 25 Novinskii Boulevard, Moscow, after 1930

Robert Byron

Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative
Exterior view, front facade, detail Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative
Exterior view, side façade with balconies, detail Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative
Exterior view, communal center, detail Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative Robert Byron
Narkomfin apartments
Moscow, USSR
Architects: Moisei Ginzburg and  Ignatii Milinis  (1928-1929)
Type: A-negative
Exterior view, side facade with pilotis, detail

Unknown

Unknown  Interior views of the House-commune of transitional type communal centre, some showing Solomon Lisagor, Rostokino, Moscow, 1928-1930 [www.imagesplitter.net]-1-1 Unknown  Interior views of the House-commune of transitional type communal centre, some showing Solomon Lisagor, Rostokino, Moscow, 1928-1930 [www.imagesplitter.net]-1-0 Unknown  Interior views of the House-commune of transitional type communal centre, some showing Solomon Lisagor, Rostokino, Moscow, 1928-1930 [www.imagesplitter.net]-0-1 Unknown  Interior views of the House-commune of transitional type communal centre, some showing Solomon Lisagor, Rostokino, Moscow, 1928-1930 [www.imagesplitter.net]-0-0

Moisei Ginzburg’s Narkomfin building in Moscow: A Soviet blueprint for collective living

Athlyn Cathcart
The Guardian
May 5, 2015

.
In the shadow of one of Stalin’s Seven Sisters skyscrapers in Moscow’s Presnenskii District, an unkempt park gives way to a trio of yellowing buildings in varying states of decay. The crumbling concrete and overgrown wall-garden don’t give much away, but this is the product of the utopian dreams of a young Soviet state — a six-storey blueprint for communal living, known as the Narkomfin building.

Designed by architects Moisei Ginzburg and Ignatii Milinis in 1928, the building represents an important chapter in Moscow’s development — as both a physical city and an ideological state. Built to house the employees of the Narodnyo Kommissariat Finansov (Commissariat of Finance), Narkomfin was a laboratory for social and architectural experimentation to transform the byt (everyday life) of the ideal socialist citizen.

arch_472_852_midterm_review_2012_page_341330532621866 Plan and elevation of minimal kitchen Narkomfin site plan, 15 May 1933, with the garden ring road to the east at bottom - (A) communal block, (B) living block, (C) mechanical laundry building, (D) proposed Leontovich scheme for the second phase, (E) 19th-century octagonal pavilion 2-F-unit plans, from Moisei Ginzburg, Zhilishche (Moscow, 1934), pg 104 Moisei Ginzburg & GA Zundblat, proposed site plan of the second phase showing the second house of the Council of People's Commissars - (A) communal block, (B) living block, (C) crèche, (D) mechanical laundry building, (E) second house 1929 F-unit plans - (A) common room, (B) sleeping niche, (C) niche for removable Frankfurt-style kitchen, from STROIKOM (1930), pg 19 118 Narkomfin Mechanical laundry building - (A) east elevation, (B) west elevation, (C) north elevation, (D) east-west section, circa 1928 K-unit plans - (A) common room, (B) conjugal bedroom, (C) child's room, (D) bathroom, from Moisei Ginzburg, Zhilishche (Moscow, 1934), pg 105 Proposed site plan - (A) communal block, (B) living block, (C) mechanical laundry building, (D) lookout point, circa 1928 Dom-komuna-Moscou_03

In the years following the 1917 Russian revolution, living conditions in the newly established Soviet Union left much to be desired. Newcomers moving from the countryside with the promise of a new life arrived in an overcrowded and underdeveloped Moscow with very little infrastructure or housing. Architects were tasked with developing a solution for the housing shortage — and a framework to support the changing face of Russian society.

Enter the “social condenser,” an idea developed by the Society of Modern Architects, who spearheaded revolutionary ideas of collective living through standardized Stroikom units, confining private amenities to a single cell while facilities like kitchens and living space were communal. Thanks to this design, the Narkomfin building appears as one long apartment block, connected to a smaller communal structure by a covered walkway and a central garden space.

119 copy

But communist values were not the only ideals behind the Narkomfin: women too were set to be emancipated. “Petty housework crushes, strangles and degrades…chains her to the kitchen,” wrote Lenin in A Great Beginning. “The real emancipation of women, real communism, will begin only where and when an all-out struggle begins…against this petty housekeeping.”

While the organization’s architecture was set to transform the byt of the domestic soviet, head architect Ginzburg was in no rush. He spoke of architecture as being able to harness the activity of the masses, and to “stimulate but not dictate” their transition into a “socially superior mode of life.”

Nikolai Miliutin, author of Sotsgorod and editor of Sovetskaia arkhitektura, inside his penthouse suite atop Ginzburg & Milinis' Dom Narkomfin (1932) Interior of Nikolai Miliutin's penthouse suite atop Ginzburg & Milinis' Dom Narkomfin (1932) Interior of Nikolai Miliutin's penthouse suite atop Ginzburg & Milinis' Dom Narkomfin (1932) Interior of Nikolai Miliutin's penthouse suite atop Ginzburg & Milinis' Dom Narkomfin (1932) Interior of Nikolai Miliutin's penthouse suite atop Ginzburg & Milinis' Dom Narkomfin (1932) Nikolai Miliutin, watercolor painting from Sotsgorod (1930) of a communal house inspired by Ginzburg and Milinis' Narkomfin building then underway Interior of Nikolai Miliutin's penthouse suite atop Ginzburg & Milinis' Dom Narkomfin (1932) Nikolai Miliutin, author of Sotsgorod and editor of Sovetskaia arkhitektura, inside his penthouse suite atop Ginzburg & Milinis' Dom Narkomfin (1932) Nikolai Miliutin, author of Sotsgorod and editor of Sovetskaia arkhitektura, inside his penthouse suite atop Ginzburg & Milinis' Dom Narkomfin (1932)

Yet the communal and feminist values behind Narkomfin went stale almost as soon as the building was completed in 1932, and only a handful of such projects were completed before Stalin’s Five Year Plan halted the experiment. After Stalin’s rise to power, the communal and emancipatory values the architecture intended to inspire were quickly rejected as “leftist” or Trotskyist, and Narkomfin’s communal spaces fell in disrepair. Residents illegally installed makeshift kitchen units into their homes and the recreation space originally planned for the building’s rooftop was instead dominated by a penthouse apartment for the commissar of finance, Nikolai Miliutin.

Having since suffered years of neglect, Narkomfin is now caught in a tug-of-war battle between developers seeking to capitalise on the building’s central Moscow location, and those campaigning for its full restoration. Between 2006 and 2008, developer Alexander Senatorov bought up around 70% of the building’s 54 flats (the Moscow government owns a further 20%, with the remaining 10% owned by individual occupants). Soon after, Senatorov began working with Aleksei Ginzburg, the original architect’s grandson, to draw up plans for a boutique hotel.

The project fell flat after the 2008 financial crisis, however. The unique split-level units were then let to artists at a nominal fee, but more recently, rental hikes have been forcing tenants out. They have been replaced by commercial establishments including a falafel shop, shisha lounge, and yoga studio — and heightened security.

Narkomfin italien

“These days it is more inviting to hipsters than historians,” says Natalia Melikova, a Moscow-based photographer and founder of the Constructivist Project. “It’s catering to a certain public now.”

Warned of the security guards’ aversion to snoopers, I entered Narkomfin by reciting a rehearsed request to visit the sixth-floor shisha lounge. Behind the heavy metal entrance door, I was eyeballed, quizzed — “who gave you information about us?” — and eventually taken up to the rooftop where, ironically, I was free to roam.

In the place where Miliutin’s penthouse once stood, the Healthy Space yoga studio now takes classes outside when the sun is shining, against a backdrop of Stalin’s ominous Kudrinskaia Square skyscraper.

Inside, “illegal repairs” have been carried out by Senatorov, who plans to spend around $12m (£7.7m) on a renovation project carried out by Kleinewelt Architects, set to include private accommodation, a mini-hotel and a small museum of constructivism. Inside an apartment-turned-falafel shop on the fifth floor, I spoke to a resident who told me that he values the collective mentality of the occupants of the building, for whom rental hikes and hasty evictions loom large.

Narkomfin in the construction stage, with Moisei Ginzburg supervising (1929) Winter view of the communal block with bridge, early 1930s Winter view of the Narkomfin Communal House, early 1930s View from the roof garden solarium, with communal block after construction, 1930 View of the Narkomfin Communa House living block, early 1930s View of the west façade during construction 1929 A-1 Dom Kommuna, from Sovremennaia Arkhitektura 4-5 (1927), pg 130 NKM-036-1023x683 View shortly after construction of the living block connected to the communal block by a covered bridge

For now, the building has been temporarily filled with artists and trendy businesses, but the ghost of the communal living experiment lingers in the hallways of Narkomfin.

Occupying a prime spot between the US embassy and a shopping center, the land around Narkomfin is ripe for real-estate development. Having previously appeared three times on the World Monuments Fund watch-list, Melikova has nominated the building once again for 2016 listing — but its worsening state puts it at risk. If considered more than 70% dilapidated, she explains, Narkomfin could be razed, rather than restored: “It is a crucial time for all stakeholders — which includes the developer, the city of Moscow, city residents, and the international community — to work together for the Narkomfin building.”

Many masterpieces of Soviet constructivism are now crumbling under capitalism, replaced by pastiche architecture or pale replicas of former buildings. When opening the neighboring luxury Novinskii Passage mall, former mayor Yuri Luzhov commented: “What a joy that in our city such wonderful, new shopping centers are appearing — not such junk,” pointing in the direction of Narkomfin.

Melikova, whose Constructivist Project aims to promote the preservation of the city’s avant-garde architecture, is hoping for a sensitive restoration of the building: “The changes are irreversible and Narkomfin’s authenticity is at stake. Moscow does not need another replica.”

Corner detail of the Narkomfin Communal House, a residential block built in what was then the Soviet Union, and photographed in 1931 by M.A. Ilyin. The image is in a show of Soviet Art and Architecture at the Royal Academy of Arts in London. Source: Royal Academy via Bloomberg238804


Under artificial skies: Planetaria and modernism

$
0
0

Mikhail-Osipovich-Barshch-Planetario-de-Moscú

A couple years ago or so, I posted a number of photos of the Moscow planetarium designed by Mikhail Siniavskii and Mikhail Barshch. The planetarium was built in 1929, and still stands today — albeit in an awful state of disrepair. I included the wonderful fragment “To the Planetarium” by Walter Benjamin, from his 1928 work One-Way Street. You can read more about the planetarium and its preservation here.

Recently I’ve found a bunch of new images to post, however, from the same cache as the Dom Narkomfin photos I posted the other day. So I thought I’d put them up for everyone to see, along with another fragment by the theorist of modernity Hans Blumenberg. Not too familiar with Blumenberg’s work, admittedly, but from what I can tell he’s less hostile to Weber than his rejection of the “secularization thesis” (what Weber called “the disenchantment of the world”) would suggest. Anyway, this bit from The Genesis of the Copernican World is quite nice. Enjoy.

4482017234_edcbe48a39_o copy 5 4482015244_0fc9813e84_o-copy-2 4479843017_e0a561555b_o copy 2 4482016256_49f1c7f0cc_o copy 4 4479843017_e0a561555b_o copy 3 4482016256_49f1c7f0cc_o copy 3 4482017234_edcbe48a39_o copy 4

The ambiguous meaning of the heavens

Hans Blumenberg
The genesis of the
Copernican world
West Berlin, 1975

.

The planetarium is the mausoleum of the starry heavens as the ideal of pure intuition. As a technical phenomenon it is deeply rooted in the nineteenth century’s longings for a popular knowledge of the starry heavens, longings that expressed themselves in “people’s astronomers” and “people’s observatories.” They retrieved the reserved property of science as a relic for a “natural” mass religion of the solved “riddles of the universe” and of ersatz emotions. To that extent the planetarium too is an end, an end of what Ernst Haeckel wrote in his Welträtsel [Riddles of the Universe] (a book that was distributed in many hundreds of thousands of copies): “The astonishment with which we gaze upon the starry heavens and the microscopic life in a drop of water, the awe with which we trace the marvelous working of energy in the motion of matter, the reverence with which we grasp the universal dominance of the law of substance throughout the universe-all these are part of our emotional life, falling under the heading of ‘natural religion.'” Modern man, Haeckel went on, does not need the narrow enclosed space of a special church in order to live in this religion; he finds his church “through the length and breadth of free nature, wherever he turns his gaze, to the whole universe or to any single part of it…” It is harsh, but indispensable in order to display the arc of this theme’s development, to quote immediately after the enthusiasms of this certainly important zoologist and theoretician of “family trees,” from 1899, what Hitler said on the subject in conversation during the noon meal in his headquarters on 5 June 1942: He had “directed that every town of any importance shall have an observatory, for astronomy has been shown by experience to be one of the best means at man’s disposal for expanding his view of the world and thus saving him from any tendency towards mental aberration.”

Under the artificial skies of the planetariums, the upright carriage of the observer of the heavens can be practiced sitting down, with the gentlest constraint to adopting the attitude of the onlooker in repose. Here, if anywhere, one should inevitably expect the demonization of the technical surrogate for the most sublime object — of the projected heavens as the false heavens. If one disregards the context of the [particular] concept of reality, into which this simulation fits as one of its logically most consistent elements, it is easy to make sarcastic fun of the false starlight and the false salvations that are sought under it. Nevertheless, this marvel has seldom been so little marveled at as in the work of Joseph Roth, who had his “first encounter with Antichrist” under this technical backdrop.

4479764455_c9660ea161_o copy 2 4480422464_8ac40daf66_o copy 2 4479843017_e0a561555b_o copy 2 4480416130_eed1dc7ef3_o copy 2 4480426350_4254faebfd_o copy 2 4480426350_4254faebfd_o copy 2 4479764455_c9660ea161_o copy 3

Roth writes a book of unmaskings. He follows the old pattern of the Platonic discovery that the realities with which we deal are only shadows and imitations; but he goes a step further beyond this schema when he establishes that everything that is even capable of being imitated is thereby lowered in its rank in reality. It is an attempt to oppose even the concept of reality that allows imitations to be real [wirklich] because they are efficacious [wirksam], without prejudice to what they may be derived from. Not only the shadows of the Platonic cave are convicted of their existential weakness, but the Ideas themselves are too, because it is still possible for those shadows to be their final derivative and the extreme indicator of their origin. What we have before us is a mirror-image reversal of Platonism: If in it the null grade of reality, in the shadows, was only possible because as images they were subordinate to the essentially imageable Ideas, now the unreality of the projections is only possible because their “originals” already suffer from unreality, so that “the reality that they imitate so deceivingly was not at all difficult to imitate, because it is not real.” This description of the cinema could in its turn be an imitation of the classic of this sort of cultural criticism, Max Picard’s Das Menschengesicht [The Human Face] of 1929: “Indeed, the real human beings, the living ones, had already become so shadowlike that the shadows on the screen had to seem real.” The unreality of reality is responsible for the artificial reality of unreality.

What Joseph Roth calls “the Antichrist” is the sum of the false realities. The boy encountered them for the first time at the beginning of his paideia [ education], in his Platonic cave: Not only the shadows but the cave itself was, so as to make the shadows possible, an artifact.

In those days a great wagon came along, drawn by invisible powers, and remained standing on an open space before the city. To begin with it sent a great machine forward, which was covered with a little tent made of linen, and on this a great tent, also made of linen, was spread out and set up like a dome, and if one went inside, the inside of the dome was a blue sky with many gold and silver stars…The dome was blue, and the stars were just as inaccessible and just as close as real stars are. For since a human being is not even tall enough to reach the roof of a circus tent erected by others of his kind, it did not matter to the person who sat beneath the dome whether it was the genuine sky or a copy of it. He could grasp neither the one nor the other with his hands. Consequently he was glad to believe that the one was the other, or vice versa. And since it became quite dark beneath and inside this dome made of tent linen, he was convinced that he sat in the midst of a clear, starry summer night…

Of course, under false heavens one can encounter false salvations. But they come from false expectations of an “authentic” and ultimate reality, of the genuine substance of nature that, because it is genuine, is at the same time not ready to hand. The demand for an authentic reality presupposes that one could tell by looking at the real that it is not the unreal-as long as one does not have to deal exclusively with the latter. But the production of this exclusiveness is what the Platonic cave and its technical successors imply.

Robert Byron, the planetarium in Moscow, Architects - Barshch, Mikhail (Osipovich)  Sinyavski, M.I.  1929b Robert Byron, the planetarium in Moscow, Architects - Barshch, Mikhail (Osipovich)  Sinyavski, M.I.  1929d Robert Byron, the planetarium in Moscow, Architects - Barshch, Mikhail (Osipovich)  Sinyavski, M.I.  1929c Robert Byron, the planetarium in Moscow, Architects - Barshch, Mikhail (Osipovich)  Sinyavski, M.I.  1929e Robert Byron, the planetarium in Moscow, Architects - Barshch, Mikhail (Osipovich)  Sinyavski, M.I.  1929a Robert Byron, the planetarium in Moscow, Architects - Barshch, Mikhail (Osipovich)  Sinyavski, M.I.  1929

The modern age added to this premise a further one. In Descartes’s consideration of doubt, the possibility is accepted that all the characteristics of the real could be imitated without the production of these characteristics having to generate, at the same time, the objective equivalent of reality. Leibniz was the first to urge, against Descartes, that the complete simulation of reality would in the end no longer be deception, because a deception requires both the implication of an assertion of what does not exist and that the person affected could suffer from being disillusioned, neither of which is the case here. The Baroque idea that life could be a dream has no terrors for Leibniz because expectation is determined by a new concept of reality in which the internal consistency of everything that is given is identical with all the ‘reliability’ of reality that is still possible.

There is something questionable and productive of misgivings in the demand for ultimate authenticity in all experiences, for an unmediated relation to the original, in a world that is characterized by overcrowding and can no longer keep open all paths to everything. This is no longer and not only a matter of the sincerity of one’s desire, not least of all because simulation surpasses artificially unaided [naturwüchsig] intuition. The starry heavens of intuition in the life-world are motionless for their viewer; if one also assumes that the everyday opportunity to view the heavens occurs at about the same time of day, there remain only the gradual seasonal displacement of the constellations, the Moon’s changes of phase, and the (even more difficult to perceive) motion of the planets. It is just not true that the natural heavens rotate soundlessly around the viewer; only the herdsmen of Chaldea were credited with having this experience without having any professional interest in having it. In contrast to this, the planetarium is a short of temporal telescope, which puts the static heavens in motion and by means of technical projection makes visible things that were never seen, that were really only disclosed by comparison of observations. Here it is a question not of duplicating experience that, with some effort, would also be possible ‘in the original’ for anyone at any time, but rather of augmenting what can be seen at all.


Toward a materialist approach to the question of race: A response to the Indigènes de la République

$
0
0

.
The Charnel-House
introduction

.
A few months ago, I wrote up a critique of the “decolonial dead end” arrived at by groups like the Indigènes de la République. Despite being welcomed in some quarters of the Left, wearied by the controversy stirred up after the Charlie Hebdo massacre, it was not well received by others. Last month, however, a French comrade alerted me to the publication of a similar, but much more detailed and carefully argued, piece criticizing Bouteldja & co. in Vacarne. I even asked a friend to translate it for the new left communist publication Ritual. But before he could complete it, someone describing himself as “a long-time reader/appreciator of The Charnel-House” contacted me to let me know he’d just finished rendering it into English.

The authors of the original piece — Malika Amaouche, Yasmine Kateb, and Léa Nicolas-Teboul — all belong to the French ultraleft, militant feminists and communists active in different groups. I am grateful they brought up the PIR’s execrable position opposing intermarriage and submitted it to ruthless criticism, offering a Wertkritik-inspired analysis of some antisemitic tropes reproduced by the self-proclaimed Indigènes. Regarding the provenance of “philosemitism,” a concept employed by Bouteldja which the authors critique: the term was invented by antisemites during the nineteenth century, as a reproach to supposed “Jew-lovers.” Not a title that would be claimed by those who were themselves sympathetic to the plight of Jews in Europe and elsewhere.

Translator’s introduction

.
The following text, a critique of the Parti des Indigènes de la République by three of its former members, originally appeared in the French journal Vacarme. A radical anti-colonial party, Parti des Indigènes came to wide attention among the English-speaking Left for their sharp critiques of secularism and racism on the French Left following the Charlie Hebdo attacks of 2015. While they seem to enjoy great respect in certain sectors of the Left, the translator of this document believes such respect is mistaken; that PIR’s identitarian politics seeks an alliance with the identitarian far right of Le Pen, Dieudonné, and Soral; and that such an approach to politics poses a great threat to the Left.

Secondly, this document provides a much-needed insight into the problem of antisemitism. Following the Charlie Hebdo attacks, the media hysterically speculated that Europe was on the verge of a pogrom, to be carried out by its numerous Muslim immigrants; Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu took up the hysteria, calling for French Jews to emigrate. The backlash among certain leftists, whom the present translator otherwise respects, was perhaps equally hysterical. Some questioned whether antisemitism was even extant in contemporary Europe; others seemed to blame antisemitic acts on crimes of the Israeli state, rather than the perpetrators. As this document’s analysis shows, antisemitism is not only a threat against Jews, but against any movement of the working class.

Rosa Luxemburg in Martinique

Toward a materialist approach to the racial question: A response to the Indigènes de la République

Malika Amaouche, Yasmine
Kateb, & Léa Nicolas-Teboul
Vacarme (June 25, 2015)
.
.

.
.
Les Indigènes de la République have helped to shed light on racism within the Left, supported by the racism of French society at large. But are they also prisoners of racism? We propose a systematic analysis of the forces exercised upon the most precarious: a critique of the erasure of race and gender; while escaping the identitarian project of the extreme right; remaining anchored in critique of political economy.


From the dead refugees of the Mediterranean, to the Baltimore riots, to the events of everyday metropolitan life, we are constantly drawn back to the question of race. It seems necessary to propose an analysis of the foundations of racism, which will not be merely a shallow response to current events.

Today, we observe mounting Islamophobia and antisemitism. These two are a pair: in a context where social segregation is becoming stronger, and the logic of all-against-all becomes uncontrollable, we must work to think of these things in conjunction. That means to reject the logic of competition between different racial oppressions; but also to examine Islamophobia and antisemitism together in all their specificity. And in all this, the general context — growing social violence, a hardening of class segmentation, and effects of structural racism (in housing, work, and so on). It is harder and harder for the poor, and for those who are the most precarious (racial minorities and women).

With the [Charlie Hebdo] attacks in January, the left was hit with its own denial of the issue of racism. It made a specialty of denouncing the victimization, and of dismissing racism as a massive structural phenomenon. Institutional feminists’ obsession with the veil functioned as a spotlight on the racism of a Left clinging to an abstract, ahistorical, and highly aggressive universalism.

This was why we were enthusiasts of the great work of exposing the racism of the Republican left — a project in which the Parti des Indigènes de la République has participated since 2004. There are many of us who worked to undermine this “respectable” racism, under which the indigènes were never truly equal.1 If the Left was never explicitly against racialized people, its arguments were dismissive of the great values meant to emancipate them. An entire history of the condescension and paternalism of the French Left remains to be written. Such a history would note the way the discourse of class was used to stratify the hierarchies of the workers’ movement itself.

Nevertheless, it seems to us that PIR is slipping. Riding the gathering wave of identitarianism, it proposes a systematic cultural, almost ethnocentric, reading of social phenomena. This leads to the adoption of dangerous positions on antisemitism, gender, and homosexuality. It essentializes the famous “Indigènes sociaux,” the subaltern it aims to represent. It is as if the racialized working class, who face the most violent racism, are being instrumentalized in a political strategy which basically plays in the arena of the white left and à la mode radical intellectuals.

For us, descendants of Muslim and Jewish Algerians, to lead the critique of the PIR, just as we led the critique of the Left, is a matter of self-defense. We believe we have nothing to win from a political operation which subsumes all questions under those of race. For us, not only the question of race, but also those of political economy, and the social relations of sex, are the order of the day.

Political economy and Islamophobia

.
Anyone who has taken the RER to Gare du Nord in the morning knows that those who look Arab, black, or Roma, face a constant pressure. “Face control,” police killings, housing in only the most distant banlieues — racial minorities face geographical, social, and symbolic segregation. This integral racism (to take up a phrase of Frantz Fanon), consubstantial with French society, begins with orientation in the fourth grade, or with the search for an internship, or the first job… and extends to all the dimensions of existence. In its multiple appearances, it extends from the streets of rich towns where ethnic men are turned away from nightclubs, to the edges of seas where they are let drown with all the indifference that attends to those who dare cross borders.

In France, Islamophobia — i.e., anti-Muslim racism — is to be understood not merely as a secular opposition to religion, but as a form of racism directed against all who are black or Arab. Its presence is seen in the public space, whether against veiled women, or young people loitering against a wall. The events of January only accentuated this process of stigmatization. From the attacks on mosques to the assaults on veiled women, to the police summons given to eight-year-olds who preferred not to say “Je suis Charlie,” it has become almost impossible for an Arab to speak politically without first prefacing that they are not an Islamist.

But it does not only operate through discriminations or prejudices. Islamophobia returns to a more central issue, the issue of race. This issue functions by assigning a place in the division of labor to certain sections of the population based on their origin or skin color. One need only observe a construction site to note that the heavy labor is performed by blacks, the technical work by Arabs, and that the overseers are white.2 Racism is the regime of material exploitation which has organized the development of European capitalism.

In effect, capitalism promotes market competition not only between capitalists, but between workers as well. This competition takes the form of a process of “naturalization,” which allows a specific devaluation of labor power. Certain sociohistoric traits of the immigrant workforce (for example, qualification, disposition, specialization) are “essentialized”: they are stretched, “typecast.” And this permits employers to bring down cost of labor.

But this process cannot be simply reduced to a “racial premium” of exploitation. It is a total social phenomenon. One may therefore submit that racialization is an essential dynamic under capitalism, which always needs greater labor power, and produces, at the same time, a “surplus” of labor power, always too much.3

Insufficiency of the “colonial” framework

.
This racism marks, materially and symbolically, the European metropolitan space. Nevertheless, the strict decolonial framework proposed by PIR prevents us from comprehending the actual dynamics of racism, which exist only in conjunction with the development of global capitalism.

The history of colonialism as such is behind us, but it has left traces. The West — that is, the historical center of accumulation now threatened by crisis — perpetuates, through its “War on Terror,” the continuation of structural exploitation on the world scale. Take, for example, the wars over access to natural resources (oil or “strategic” minerals). But equally at play is the intensification of exploitation in all class segments, beginning with the most fragile. This process of immiseration and marginalization ends by engulfing those subjects who are not black, Arab, or the descendants of the colonized.

In the riots of 2005, it was not only blacks and Arabs, but also vast portions of the “native proletariat” affected by general immiseration. So sorry to disappoint Fox News, but these were not ethnic clashes. The young rioters of immigrant backgrounds were in exact proportion to their importance within the population of the neighborhoods which revolted — neither more nor less.4

The question of race in the struggle

.
Often, the question of race in the struggle is posed in an immanent and non-“ethnicizing” manner. If certain struggles are massively racialized, it is because the proletariat is assigned this place in the division of labor. The mothers of Maghrebin families organize collectively to obtain rent-controlled housing, the maids of the Park Hyatt hotel go on strike after the rape of a Guinean woman by a rich Saudi, the Chadian asylum-seekers occupy a building for the sake of their lives…

When the undocumented Chinese workers of the Strasbourg-Saint-Denis nail salons collectively demand their wage, go on strike, and then make the salon pay for their strike fund, they are joined by Ivoirian hairdressers. Despite divisions in race, wage, and culture, racialized workers come together in their struggles. The issue of race is central, particularly because the issue of salary is directly linked to that of [immigration] documents — but it is not a strictly identitarian or intra-communal issue. This is so even if the struggle does not immediately bring about unity between all class segments. As struggles mount, divisions become less and less significant. That is, on the condition that the most oppressed group is taken into account — that is, the undocumented, who are the most isolated and marginalized in a strike — and are joined by other migrants, and, after a small victory, by the other salons in the neighborhood. When the struggle is defeated or ends, the divisions sharpen, and each returns to their place.5

The racialization that we suffer is therefore not independent of cleavages in class. They do not disappear just because militants deny them in their discourse. On the contrary, they renew them, and risk deepening the incomprehension between different social groups, who are bound to encounter each other, and occasionally ally with each other in their struggles. Because the separations, the social contradictions are permanent, the appearance of struggles is inevitable. Encounters between exploited groups become possible — and are themselves a stake in the struggle. Encounters between those who are commonly exploited, if not equally exploited.

The critique of political economy: Just for les beurs?

.
To envisage race as a social construction, implies the ability to think of other social relations, such as gender and class, as equally socially constructed. Thinking of racism systematically must allow one to articulate race and gender, race and class. Thus, we take up the school of thought which refuses to consider the categories historically produced by our mode of production — property, labor, money — as natural. Or, to use the old phrase, we continue the critique of political economy.

And it is this very discourse which PIR systematically does away with. It is all as if the indigènes sociaux can only escape their subaltern position by redoubling the racialization of their position within capital. As if young immigrants from colonialism do not have the right to question the organization of labor, the ownership of the means of production, exploitation…in short, all which has founded, for the past thirty years, the separation between Left and Right. As if all these questions were simply “intellectual” stuff, or [white] French stuff, or worse, the highest insult, beur stuff.

To speak of structural racism without ever giving the causes of racism, is to leave the door open to all schools of “anti-system” thought. Thus only a firm position in relation to the core of this “system” allows one to keep a cool head in the Right’s great game of identity.

The wave of antisemitism

.
The murders of Jews in the last few years (in Toulouse, Brussels, Paris, Copenhagen) are only the tip of the iceberg. In Créteil, in autumn 2014, a couple was robbed: “They are Jews, therefore they have money” — this was the justification for the targeting and rape of a young woman in front of her husband. The “statements” of media personalities veered far to the extreme right. One student unionist explained that the Jews, quite numerous in the University, prevented him from being elected…in the Paris metro, an Eastern European lumpen insults an old religious Jew: “Jewwww! Shit! Jewww! …” A bagel delivery man takes part, because he works for the Jews-who-have-the-money…

One observes an important resurgence of the old idea of Jews as personifying money, the system, as possessing an occult power. The theoretical substrate of European antisemitism, sedimented at the end of the nineteenth century, is mobilized. A certain idea of the nation, of the Christian West, was founded on white supremacy, from which the Jews were excluded. Certain other political currents “whitened” them, and claimed that the Maghrébins would be the spearhead of an antisemitic resurgence. The vandalizing of Jewish graves in Alsace by those of French stock [Français de souche] (as M. Hollande called them) showed that it is not only the Maghrébins and blacks living in the projects of the banlieue who are antisemitic. In French society, antisemitism circulates in different social classes, in different cultural spheres. There is also a globalization of the circulation of this ideology. One thinks of the antisemitic commentaries aroused by Dominique Ouattara, the wife of the current president of Côte d’Ivoire, who is of Jewish origin.

The potentially “populist” and anti-hegemonic tenor of antisemitism has always been the key to its success: “The Jews are the favorites,” “The Jews dominate the world.” On this basis, antisemitism may again begin to operate politically, redefining its alliances (for example, that of Dieudonné, coming from the antiracist Left, and the audience he shares with Soral).

Structural antisemitism

.
Modern antisemitism has a systematic dimension. It pretends to explain a menacing and rapidly complexifying world. Linked to conspiracism, it presents itself as the key to interpreting all the violence and nonsense which found the dynamics of a social order which has no goal but its own reproduction. This apparently delusional explanation of the world has real effects. The identification of Jews with money, with an abstract and menacing power, endures. In moments of social crisis, it returns in force, even on the left.

The German school of Wertkritik6 attempted to understand the tendential link between certain forms of anticapitalist critique and antisemitism. The categories that dictate capitalist social relations — money, labor, commodity — possess a dual nature, which Marx characterized as “fetishism.” The concrete nature, which appears to us immediately, defines our sensuous world: the use of the commodity object, the content of manual or intellectual work, the lived time of vacations bought on credit… The abstract nature operates as a dynamic of the capitalist system (namely value), but also makes this infamous system knowable. Mediated by value, capitalist social relations rest therefore on relations of class, founded on exploitation, violently unequal — but do not take the form of direct relations between persons. The social violence of capital is exercised upon the exploited, the dispossessed, but its dynamic, by the same logic of the mode of production, carries an abstract dimension.

Not all anticapitalist traditions capture this dual nature of capitalist social relations, at once concrete and abstract. Often, they naturalize the concrete, and focus their critique on the abstract: against finance capital, for “true economy,” or industry, without seeing that the production of commodities, the simple exchange of bread for money, is also regulated by abstractions. Abstraction they therefore relate to a parasitic dimension, an excess of the system.

It is with this abstract dimension that the Jews are identified: with an impalpable, occult power, with money. Exaggerated, mythified, biologized; certain of their social and historical characteristics, certain of their economic activities are linked to the sphere of circulation; their presence over a very large geographical area is also taken up in this identification. Thus, antisemitism operates typically as a personification of the domination of abstract capital.

In this sense, the Jewish question is at once specific and central for the history of European capitalism. It does not function as an “absolute” question, or one “above history.”7 If this type of structural racism was brought specifically against the Jews, the same racialization of sociohistoric traits could be brought against other populations. Today, for example, in Southeast Asia, racism against the Chinese takes on almost the same traits as that against the Jews (the double image of money and power).

We therefore must take the measure of this structural antisemitism, its historical importance and its resilience in a phantasmagoric image which is as alive as ever. Not to make this racism exceptional among all others, but to understand why antisemitism is pernicious and powerful. It leaves capitalism intact while solely attacking the phantasmagoric personifications of that social form. To deconstruct antisemitism is to see where it is found, where it is spoken, and attempt to decouple the identification of Jews with money and power.

Charges of “philosemitism”: Antisemitism in disguise

.
The text of Houria Bouteldja, which in the name of antiracism, calls on us to march “against the philosemitism of the State,” troubles us.8

When Segré utilised the term [philosemitism] some years ago, it called attention to those ideologues who, in the guise of defending the Jews, proposed a defense of whiteness, of the West.9 It did not mean that the French state or the reactionary intellectuals were in fact philosemitic, much less the “white Left”! Now “philosemitism” has come to mean the opposite, designating the idea of the Jews as responsible for the construction of an identitarian order. Antisemitism would be understood, then, as a reaction to the philosemitism of the State, to the role played by Jews as allies of the racist republican State. To struggle against antisemitism, would be to struggle against philosemitism.

A clever dialectic, this, recalling the old idea that the Jews, linked to power, pull the strings! A picture based on a reading of colonial history that would play the Jews against the Arabs and vice versa.

Review of the history of the Jews in Algeria

.
The comparison of the Jews to the Senegalese tirailleurs who committed the massacres in Southern Morocco, implies that the Jews had massacred the Muslims, or participated directly in colonial repression. Certainly, the Jews in Algeria were in an ambiguous position vis-à-vis independence. Attached to France (citizens since 1870, having seen therefore an improvement of their quality of life and their cultural assimilation), their ancient and recent also history distinguished them form the European colonists, and they were the targets of antisemitism (from the colonists, as from the the Vichy regime).

To consider today that the Shoah concerns only the Jews and the Europeans, whereas antisemitism in Algeria is interwoven with this history, or to forget the few but significant Jewish figures (communists) engaged in the struggle for independence, is a choice of historical reading. Politically, in 1956, at the Soummam conference, the FLN envisaged the opposite choice in proposing an alliance with the Jewish minority, calling for solidarity with the struggle for national liberation and promised to them “the honor of independent Algeria…”10

Politicizing antisemitism

.
This politicization performed by the PIR took place while going back and forth between a conference in Oslo for the intellectual elite of the world, and a protest in Barbès.

To become acceptable, this political legitimation of antisemitism had to be distinguished from historical antisemitism. It is the “anti-Jewish resentment” of today’s wretched of the earth, the Maghrébin, “sympathetic,” homegrown… It emanates from a popular fantasy of a pure Maghrébin culture, which may be abstracted from fifty years of history. Like all cultural processes, antisemitic prejudices are hybridized, even among the dominated. To construct a pure subaltern culture is a model of theory that recalls what Edward Said called Orientalism. This construction of radical alterity is thus a feat of cultural domination, which endows the absolute Other with positive or negative traits.

Therefore, if one ceases to read antisemitism as an enthno-cultural problem, one sees that the antisemitic Maghrébins who become political do not go to the PIR, but directly to Soral. In desiring to embody a popular Maghrébin antisemitism, leaders of the PIR do nothing but ride the wave of confusion on the left. They flirt with the white Left in replaying their historical tactics of minimizing racism.

Identification of Jews with Israel

.
The Jews of France are a minority that is being directly linked to the state of Israel. But there exists a de facto link because Israel represented a “solution to the national fate of the Jews” after the extermination of the European Jews, and welcomed a great majority of the Jews from the East. A recent state, founded on violence, Israel perpetuates the oppression of the Palestinian population, which implicates Zionism as a national solution to antisemitic violence. We criticize as such the exactions made on Gaza, in the Territories, the accelerating colonization in the West Bank and East Jerusalem.

But the identification of Jews with Israel functions in a larger way. It is the political racket of Netanyahu, who, following the Charlie Hebdo attacks, invited the Jews of France to make aliyah — in reality, he invited them to live in the West Bank, to become the apprentices of the extreme Right, because Israeli society, in crisis and war, has nothing else to offer them. In parallel, the same thinking is at work among the antisionistes. For them, Israel embodies all the problems of the world. But this antisionisme is not the criticism of a state, its functioning, its nationalist ideology, its violence; it is not a call for international solidarity with the populations of victims of the State (even less for the necessity of their self-defense). A consistent international solidarity means to prioritize, first of all, the attack against the imperialism of one’s own state, and not to engage in exoticism. Otherwise, one could not be scandalized by the presence of Netanyahu and Lieberman at the “Je Suis Charlie” marches. Israel would be the pawn of the West, the unique representative of universal imperialism, responsible for all the ills that befall the Arabs, and even all others; for the repression of social movements, and so on.

The result is that today, the political field of antisionisme does not cease to drift rightward. The antizionist Left is at great pains to decouple the conflation of the Jews with Israel in this toxic political space. Toxic for the Jews, but also for the working class in France, racialized or not, who have nothing to win from this sole focus on the Palestinian question, powered by nostalgia for Pan-Arabism and French leftists.

A quenelle against the system, for the restoration of masculinity

.
When giving her feelings about what motivated the January 2015 attacks, Houria Bouteldja explained that male indigènes might have been driven “crazy” by the whites’ denial of their manliness. According to her, nevertheless, “the residents of the quartiers do not wish to politicize their sexuality.” At the same time, in her intervention in the colloquium “Penser l’émancipation,” she gives us an essentialized description of the questions of manliness of young Muslim Arab men, complimenting Soral in passing for offering a program for the restoration of the masculinity stolen by colonialism and racism. To speak of the protesters of the ’80s, she poses to us the hypersexualized bodies of male indigènes, “bringing the first batterings against the immaculate white Republic” (as if she were not objectifying these men). She noted in passing that these young Arab men lacked clear judgement. Then, she drew the silhouette of Dieudonné, brandishing his quenelle, but “poorly endowed, intellectually, because he does not possess a correct program.” Finally, to justify this antisemitic salute, she brings up its effect as a woman, in declaiming her love for Dieudonné: “I love him because he has done an important thing in terms of dignity, of indigène pride, of black pride: he has refused to be a House Negro. Even if he does not have the correct political program in mind, he has the attitude of resistance. And I would add, that this was true of him long before his allies, those who take notice of the indigènes. An upstanding man.”11

On the one hand, this representation of the “young Arab male” is no different from that constructed by white feminists, secularists, and republicans, as intrinsically, culturally, biologically almost, masculine and sexist.12 On the other hand, this essentialization of Arab Muslims leaves no place for any other identity within that of the indigène. This is the whole limit of the program sketched by the PIR under the notion of “domestic internationalism”: a supremacy of [the concept of] race which in fact annuls any other articulation — race and class, race and gender, race and sexuality.13 According to this reasoning, therefore, an indigène social movement cannot develop tools for struggle or demands according to its present situation; according to gender, or sexuality. It must only refer to eternally to its post-colonial positionality; those models of emancipation belong to the past. If it makes a defense of other causes, or articulates, for a random example, race and gender, it thereby adopts the white agenda.14

Feminism: A luxury for indigène women?

.
We find ourselves refusing the the injunctions of white feminism, which defines the terms of emancipation according to the norms that construct the domination of the subaltern and function to its benefit. But for Houria Bouteldja, feminism is a luxury which indigène women may not profess to claim. In that regard, she declares: “The indigène male is not the principal enemy. The radical critique of indigène patriarchy is a luxury.”15 It is not a priority in the face for racism from whites, police violence, or discrimination. It is therefore impossible for indigène women to denounce sexism and patriarchy, which could only be oppressions among others, without betraying the men of their community. Furthermore, they depend financially on the men of their communities, which would reduce still further their flexibility.

Now, questions of economic survival are the norm for women in the common quarters. In Seine-Saint-Denis, the poorest section of Île-de-France, women take up the parental functions in 89.9% of single-parent families; this, in a general context of a greatly increasing number of families (cf. figures from INSEE and Efgip). The men have deserted the family and women find themselves alone to raise the children and ensure the survival of the family. Those women, therefore, are the pillars in the poorest homes. The disintegration of the nuclear family, the “disappearance” of the men, does not imply the disappearance of patriarchy: violence against women, the structure of commodified labor, and of the family, are such that (for example), a divorcee remains under the guardianship of her ex-husband, especially for the education of the children. But that does not authorize Bouteldja to therefore void all feminist aspirations for these women.

Opposition to mixed marriage

.
In singing the praises of “unmixed” marriage,16 Bouteldja makes as if the act of conversion to Islam, for a white, would amount to an abandonment of their privileges and dominant position. Here again, it seems that an essentialization of religion is superimposed onto race, as if the two were intrinsically linked. One cannot deny that mixed marriage is also marriage between dominant and dominated. But to represent conversion as a purification of social class, and to advocate racial segregation, is chilling.

This bring us to the subject of arranged marriages where the women are not consulted in the choice of a spouse, and the repression of conjugal and intra-communal violence perpetrated against women. And here, one would like to interest oneself in the desires of indigène women, and in the consequences of the denial of their autonomy and the frustrations that follow this communitarian model. We recognize that the subject risks once more the pitfall of dividing the community. Once more, women are asked to sacrifice themselves for the group. Even if the question of conjugal and intra-communal violence is used to stigmatize racialized men, even if Arab machismo is instrumentalized to absolve that of white men, that is not a reason to cultivate a code of silence among ourselves.

Effectively, the links of community strengthen the need for material solidarity in a context of crisis, impoverishment, and the loss of social benefits. To identify these phenomena of mutual aid with a simple identitarian retreat, is to deny that which could be a strategy of survival for the most poor. That is, for the community to support a party of jobs, care for the sick, visits for prisoners, and so on. But, structurally, to cook, to bring people together, to put young children to sleep, to take care of the old mothers, all these tasks fall to the women. To idealize communitarian links, then, is to redouble the erasure of the work of women at the core of the family and the community.

One may also analyze the “manif pour tous” as a retreat to the familial sphere and an increasingly violent relegation of women to the private sphere in a context of generalized survival. But for the Blanches du 93, it evokes a return to the values that may speak of communitarianism for racialized women.

Conclusion

.
Therefore, we think that the actual context of generalized impoverishment and economic crisis must be understood from the point of view of race and feminism. Because women are assigned to the sphere of reproduction, a time of crisis always implies for them a drastic augmentation in the portion of labor, and increasing violence. Everything linked to consumption is more expensive, harder to obtain, and it is they who bear in part the cost of diminishing welfare, in money and time: if one must spend three hours in line at the CAF, it will be women working part-time who do it. Domestic labor increases, and with it, the violent reassertion of women into their gender-role, which is not at all intrinsic.

Only a really materialist reading of the question of race, and not simply a moral reading, like that of the Left, or a political one, like that of the PIR, allows us to articulate the different forms of racism from one another, to not divide the victims of racism, and to draw the link with the question of women, in the current context.

Such a reading furthermore offers the possibility of escaping from a dichotomous vision of these questions. In effect, on one hand, there is a denial of the Islamophobia at the core of the government, and this minimization has been prepared for a long time in the Left antiracist movements. On the other hand, a part of the field of social criticism undervalues the question of antisemitism. Between the government, the antiracist left, and the PIR, the field is small and suffocating.

To exit this impasse, it is necessary to simultaneously recognize what is happening in the present, and leave the shadow of violence suffered in the past. In this sense, the battle for memorial recognition is an essential labor, but it makes sense only if it is effectively connected to social struggles.

The reading offered by the Indigènes de la République on the issue of racism seems rather feeble, in the final analysis, because it systematically excludes questions of political economy. In this sense the PIR remains a prisoner to issues of the Left, white or otherwise.

We think, on the contrary, that it is necessary to maintain a reading of class and racism, even if, historically, the relations of class have been utilized to erase the questions of race and gender. If a decolonial reading helps us also understand today’s current dynamics, such a model serves to construct an homogenous subject, as was previously done with class. Thus, race subsumes all other questions. It has become the only paradigm to designate oppressions linked to capitalist domination. Now, it is not a question of hierarchizing between struggles of class and race, but on the contrary, to seize the entanglement of the questions of class and race (it is not possible to think class without race, and vice versa).

What has come to pass in Baltimore demonstrates once again: “Today, there is no legitimate black leadership. If anything the ascension of a handful of blacks into positions of power has demonstrated the structural impossibility of finding a place for the majority of blacks in America. A black mayor, a black police chief, a black president, and Baltimore still burns.”17

Notes


1 One may cite Sylvie Tissot and Pierre Tevanian, Dictionnaire de la lepénisation des esprits, Paris, L’Esprit frappeur, 2002, sur la déconstruction du racisme républicain; Abdelmalek Sayad “le Mode de génération des générations immigrées,” in: Migrants-formation 98, September 1994; Jean-Pierre Vernant, “Le PCF et la question algérienne,” Entre mythe et politique, Seuil, 1996. We cannot resist reopening this citation, utilized by Said Bouamama, who demonstrated the deep colonialism at the base of the agreement unanimously adopted by the interfederal congress of North Africa of the Communist Party in September 1922: “The emancipation of the indigenous of Algeria can only be a consequence of revolution in France (…). Communist propaganda directed towards the indigenous is in fact pointless and dangerous. It is pointless because the indigenous have not yet attained an intellectual or moral level that will allow them to reach communist ideas…It is dangerous…because it would provoke the demoralization of our factions,” in: Bouamama, Les fondements historiques et idéologiques du racisme respectable de la gauche française,” March 4, 2015.
2 See Nicolas Jounin, Chantier interdit au public. Enquête parmi les travailleurs du bâtiment, La Découverte, 2008.
3 See Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. I, Ch. 23, “The general law of capitalist accumulation,” P.U.F, 2006 (« Quadrige »), and more specifically, the agreement between Irish and English workers, in the framework of the sclerosis of the reserve army of labor.
4 According to the agreement of the Direction Centrale des Renseignements Généraux (DCRG), 11/23/05, published by Le Parisien 7/12/05.
5 See the declaration of the Combahee River Collective, 1979, on the revolutionary potential of the struggle of black lesbians, the most oppressed group (according to sex, race, and class).
6 While affirming our reading of structural antisemitism, we are very critical of positions of support for Israel taken by certain of its representatives, and of the manner in which this undermines the class struggle.
7 See Enzo Traverso, La violence nazie, une généalogie européenne, La Fabrique, 2002.
8 The tract of PIR titled, “Non au(x) racisme(s) d’État, non au philosémitisme d’État!” was distributed at the March 21 2015 demonstration.
9 Ivan Segré, La réaction philosémite, ou La trahison des clercs, Éditions Lignes, 2009.
10 August 1956, an important moment in the political structuring of the FLN.
11Au-delà de vous : Avec vous, Contre vous. Dieudonné au prisme de la gauche blanche ou comment penser l’internationalisme domestique?” published February 25, 2014 by Houria Bouteldja on the website of the PIR. Translated into English on Richard Seymour’s blog, Lenin’s Tomb: “Dieudonné through the prism of the white left.”
12 See Nacera Guénif Souilamas & Éric Macé, Les féministes et le garçon arabe, ed. l’Aube, 2004, and Isabelle Clair, “Le pédé, la pute et l’ordre hétérosexuel,” Agora Débats Jeunesse, 2012/1  № 60, p. 67-78.
13 One may take up the theory developped by Sadri Khiari, of the PIR, in the notion of the “Domestic International,” as it were, in the French context, to substitute the class struggle “with a domestic internationalism in which the racial question, in all its dimensions, would be central. In a word, a decolonial internationalism.” See http://indigenes-republique.fr/inte
14 Malika Amaouche, “Les gouines of colors sont-elles des indigènes comme les autres?” p. 159
15 See “Méditations d’une femme indigène quelques mois après l’affaire DSK : Pierre, Djemila, Dominique…et Mohamed,” published March 8, 2012, by Houria Bouteldja on the website of the PIR.
16 See the interview with Houria Bouteldja in Vacarme 71, Spring 2015, revendiquer un monde décolonial, pp. 44-69.
17Déclaration d’un camarade natif de Baltimore sur le soulèvement,” Des Nouvelles du Front, May 1, 2015: (translated from English, original text published in sicjournal.org April 30, 2015, “A Statement from a Comrade and Baltimore Native About the Uprising There”)


The mind and face of Bolshevism (1926)

$
0
0

.
You can download an illustrated full-tex
t PDF of The Mind and Face of Bolshevism by clicking on the embedded link. What follows is an introduction to it and some thoughts on an all-too-familiar claim that Marxism is merely a form of secular religion.

René Fülöp-Miller’s 1926 book, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism: An Examination of Cultural Life in the Soviet Union, offers a unique window into the profound transformations underwent during the first decade of communism in the USSR. Fülöp-Miller sets out to capture the psychology and physiognomy of the October Revolution, and largely succeeds in this task. The picture he paints of the period is unforgettable, covering a great deal of ground without boring his readers. He accomplishes this by including some of the more bizarre phenomena associated with the Bolshevik regime, its most eccentric and utopian elements. Notably, Fülöp-Miller goes over Aleksei Gastev’s Institute for Labor in Moscow, Platon Kerzhentsev’s League of Time, the militant godless movement, God-building [богостроительство], and the Commissariat of Enlightenment. But he also manages to fit in some of his own analysis, which is admittedly hit-or-miss. Upton Sinclair, whose 1927 review from New Masses follows below, is right to say that Fülöp-Miller is better at reading the surface features of Bolshevism’s “face” than he is at discerning the deeper aspects of its “mind.”

It should be stated from the outset that Fülöp-Miller was not a Bolshevik. As Bertrand Russell put it: “Fülöp-Miller is himself a socialist, but of the Western kind.” However, he was not unsympathetic to the Soviet project. Despite serious reservations about the fervor and rapidity with which the Bolsheviks were looking to implement reforms, and revolutionize everyday life, Fülöp-Miller endorsed their efforts insofar as they represented an extension of Enlightenment to the masses. Some tendentiousness can nevertheless be detected in his ham-handed dismissal of Bolshevism as a form of surrogate religion. Many have leveled this criticism, or some version of it, against Marxism as a whole. On this, a few thoughts: An overview of the major proponents of Marxism after Marx’s death in 1883 reveals that they understood themselves in terms of their “faithfulness” to the tradition first established by Marx. The various stances adopted toward this tradition were often couched in explicitly religious language: in terms like heresy, orthodoxy, schism, sectarianism, and dogmatism. Could it be that Marxism’s critics are right to say that it merely secularizes spiritual impulses?

René Fülöp-Miller, age 14 René Fülöp-Miller in military uniform during the war (he later joined in opposition to the war effort) René Fülöp-Miller and his wife René Fülöp-Miller in his study in Vienna René Fülöp-Miller with the Tolstoys

My former mentor, Chris Cutrone, handles this charge in a characteristic manner. Rather than challenge its validity, he seeks to divest the criticism of its power by “owning it” — i.e., consciously admitting that it is in fact true. Supposedly this softens the blow, since it’s true of everyone and at least Cutrone is transparent about it. I would like to resist this gesture, as I consider it empty. He states in his otherwise brilliant critique of Badiou, “The Marxist Hypothesis”:

It is significant that they themselves sought to justify their own political thought and action in such terms — and were regarded for this by their political opponents as sectarian dogmatists, disciples of Marxism as a religion. But how did they think that they were following Marx? What are we to make of the most significant and profound political movement of the last two centuries, calling itself “Marxist,” and led by people who, in debate, never ceased to quote Marx at each other? What has been puzzled over in such disputes, and what were — and are still, potentially — the political consequences of such disagreement over the meaning of Marx?

Certainly, Marxism has been disparaged as a religion, and Marx as a prophet…Marxism cannot help today (after its failure) but become something like a religion, involving exegesis of “sacred texts,” etc.

Of course, this runs directly counter to some of the statements in the “sacred texts” Cutrone seeks to excavate. For example, Lukács in his article on “Orthodox Marxism”: “Orthodox Marxism…does not imply the uncritical acceptance of the results of Marx’s investigations. It is not the ‘belief’ in this or that thesis, nor the exegesis of a ‘sacred’ book.” A quandary, it would seem, which cannot be done away with simply by pointing to changed historical conditions. Even avowed opponents of Marxism and psychoanalysis such as Michel Foucault will these discourses against charges of crypto-religiosity: “It goes without saying that it would be completely wrong to identify [forms of knowledge like Marxism or psychoanalysis] with religion. This is meaningless and contributes nothing.” Religious analogies only go so far, anyway. Marxists today are forced to reflect on classic texts, to be sure — if they are to educate themselves at all — because there is no living practice worthy of the name that would allow theorists today to build upon the insights of the past. Without such a practice, the best Marxists can do is look back upon works written at a time when communism as a “real movement” had not yet ground to a halt.

SCHOOL FOR ILLITERATES PORTRAIT OF ZAMIATIN (by I. Annenkov) THE STORMING OF THE KREMLIN (drawing by Krinski) TROTSKI IN HIS STUDY PROPAGANDA CHINA PLATE FROM THE FORMER IMPERIAL FACTORY THE CUPOLA OF A LENINGRAD CHURCH THE USPENSKI CATHEDRAL THE "THEATRICALISED" STORMING OF THE WINTER PALACE TAIROV THE "CENTRAL EXECUTIVE OF ALL THE RUSSIAN PROLETARIAT" HOLDS A SESSION IN THE FORMER CORONATION ROOM OF THE MOSCOW KREMLIN. THE "CONSTRUCTIVIST" STAGE IN THE MAYER HOLD THEATRE STALIN AND KALININ STANISLAVSKI THE GIANT TOYS OF THE COLLECTIVE MAN- figures of Lloyd George, Millerand, Kerenski and Milinkov in front of the Kremlin THE MECHANIZED INDIVIDUAL IS REDUCED TO A MERE COMPONENT PART IN THE MASS WHICH HAS BECOME THE MACHINE. (Constructivistic-symbolical drawing by Krinski) THE PRIVATE CHAPEL OF THE "TROITSKOE PODVORE" (Church of the Trinity) TRANSFORMED INTO AN ATHEIST'S CLUB

Beyond superficial similarities, however, this has nothing in common with patristics. This does not prevent the charge from being periodically recycled. Chris Taylor of the blog Of CLR James has had occasion to mock my “hot combo of flat-materialist anti-clericalism and religiously inflected hermeneutical/exegetical approach to Marxist-Leninist holy writ.” My only reply would be that it is quite all right to disagree with Marx, Lenin, or any other figure from the history of Marxism. In doing so, though, one should be quite clear how and why one is departing from Marx’s (or Lenin’s, or anyone else’s) conclusions. None of them were infallible figures, but as Marxists and followers of Lenin or whoever they ought to be taken seriously. Such was Walter Benjamin’s attitude toward the claim made by Fülöp-Miller in The Mind and Face of Bolshevism, as expressed in a 1927 letter written to Kracauer. He recommended the book but disagreed sharply with its portrayal of Bolshevism as a form of religious sectarianism. Oskar Negt and Alexander Kluge also rely heavily on the book in their own work on the Public Sphere and Experience: Toward an Analysis of the Bourgeois and Proletarian Public Sphere (1972).

Upton Sinclair’s review appears below. His points about Bolshevism being a positive outcome of Western civilization and about collective freedom being the key to unlock individual freedom are as relevant today as ever. Enjoy.

Cover of New Masses, November 1927

Review of The Mind and Face of Bolshevism, by René Fülöp-Miller

Upton Sinclair
The New Masses
November 1927
.

There comes in my mail a large and costly volume from England, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism, by René Fülöp-Miller. Inside I find a card, informing me that the book is sent with the author’s compliments, and giving me his address in Vienna — which I understand to mean that he wishes me to tell him what I think of his book. So I send him what as children we used to call “my private opinion publicly expressed.”

Mr. Fülöp-Miller has visited Soviet Russia for a long time, and collected a mass of information, and presented it accurately, with many illustrations, and not too much prejudice; so he gives us the face of Bolshevism very acceptably. But when he comes to interpret the mind of Bolshevism, his class prejudices inevitably get in the way, and he misses the point completely.

I, who have never been to Soviet Russia, but who have managed to free myself from class prejudices, venture to tell Mr. Fülöp-Miller a few things about the mind of Bolshevism, as follows:

  1. Bolshevism is neither incompatible with nor destructive of Western civilization. It is a product and evolution of Western civilization.
  2. Bolshevism’s setting up and glorifying of the masses is not a denial and destruction of individuality, but an effort to make individuality possible to those persons who have hitherto been denied it. Mr. Fülöp-Miller’s class prejudice is manifested in the fact that the beginnings of individuality in a hundred million peasants and workers mean so little to him, in comparison with the limitations of individuality in the case of a million or so aristocrats and intellectuals. Under Russian Tsarism all individuality was denied to the workers and peasants; and the gentlemen who wrote large and costly books were as a rule quite untroubled by this fact. The same condition prevails now to a great extent in Austria, where Mr. Fülöp-Miller’s book was written, and in England where it is published, and in America, where I am reviewing it; and for the most part the intellectual class remains quite untroubled.
  3. If the masses are to have individuality, they must first gain political and economic power; and to get that, and hold it, they must have solidarity and discipline. That means temporarily a certain amount of surrender of individuality — as when men enlist in an army to fight for a cause. In the late unhappy disagreement among the capitalist masters of the world, some twenty or thirty million men were forced to enter armies and risk agony and death; but this loss of individuality did not as a rule trouble the gentlemen who wrote large and costly books, whether in Russia, Austria, England, or America.
  4. It is quite true that Bolshevism represses its internal enemies. Mr. Fülöp-Miller tells us at some length how it does this, and he is much distressed thereby. But reading his book I found myself desiring to ask him this one simple question: what does he think would happen to Bolshevism if it let its internal enemies alone? What would happen to any state which suddenly declared complete freedom of conspiracy and assassination? Will Mr. Fülöp-Miller tell us in another volume what did happen to Bolshevism in Hungary, where it failed to be stern enough? Will he write a book telling us about the White Terror in Finland, and Poland, and Romania, and Hungary — yes, and Austria, and England, and Boston? Will he give us the best estimate he can make as to the number of lives taken by the “reds” in Finland, and then by the “whites” when they came back into power?
  5. In short, what I want Mr. Fülöp-Miller to do is to write me another volume, equally large and costly, entitled, The Mind and Face of Fascism. Now that I have been told about the “G.P.U.” in Russia, I surely ought to be told about Mannerheim and Petlura, and Denekin and Kolchak and Judenich and Horthy; yes, and about the Hakenkreutzler and their murders in Austria, and about the New Fascist organizations in England, and about the American Legion, and the Centralia massacre, and the “deportations of delirium” and the Sacco-Vanzetti case — If my Austrian confrere will prepare such a book, he won’t have to send it to me free — I will agree to pay the full retail price, and tell him of some other persons who will do the same. But I fear that, in spite of such inducements, the book will never be published by the patriotic Major Putnam!

Upton Sinclair

COMMUNIST UNIVERSITY OF THE WESTERN PEOPLES IN MOSCOW READING ROOM PORTRAIT OF GORKI (by I. Annenkov) "SUPREMATIST" POTTERY FROM THE FORMER IMPERIAL POTTERY FACTORY "SUPREMATIST" POTTERY FROM THE FORMER IMPERIAL POTTERY FACTORY "SUPREMATIST" POTTERY FROM THE FORMER IMPERIAL POTTERY FACTORY BOLSHEVIK "ISMS." GREAT SOVIET GYMNASTIC DISPLAY FESTIVAL TO CELEBRATE THE FRATERNISATION BETWEEN WORKERS, PEASANTS AND SOLDIERS LENIN SPEAKING FROM A PLATFORM ON THE MOSCOW THEATRE SQUARE. A COMMUNIST SPEAKER AMONG THE PEASANTS A TEMPLE OF THE MACHINE-WORSHIPPERS- A Byzantine . Dome. Instead of angels, figures of Communist agitators have been placed in the spandrels (Drawing by Krinski) PLAN FOR A MONUMENT TO THE COMMUNIST REVOLUTION- "THE COLOSSUS OF IRON." A COMMUNIST PARTY CONFERENCE CHEKHOV (a nephew of the writer) IN A "RED WORKERS' CLUB." Performance of a play by Mayerhold, in which the political questions of the day are discussed GROUP FROM A PROLETARIAN PROCESSION CINE-PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE LABOUR PROCESS LENIN ADDRESSES THE CROWD FROM THE FACTORY CHIMNEYS (drawing by Deni) LENIN, BUKHARIN AND ZINOV'EV; THE FOUNDERS OF "BOLSHEVIK MARXISM." BIRO'S EYE VIEW OF TilE WINTER PALACE WITH THE ALEXANDER COLUMN " TIm MASS ON THE MARCH." (Radek, painting by Kupka) "LET US TAKE THE STORM OF THE REVOLUTION IN SOVIET RUSSIA, UNITE IT TO THE PULSE OF AMERICAN LIFE, AND DCl OUR WORK LIKE A CHRONOMETER!" (Gastev's appeal for Americanization) LENIN'S FUNERAL A WALKING EXHIBITION ' OF THE .BOOK TRADE DURING AN INDUSTRIAL FESTIVAL ARCHITECTURAL MODEL (by Ladovski) CONCERT OF FACTORY SIRENS AND STEAM WHISTLES The conductor stands on the roof of the tallest house and conducts by means of flags LEADERS OF SOVIET RUSSIA- Sokolnikov, Piatakov, Bukharin, Kamenev, Kurski A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER, BEFORE SHOPPING, GOES WITH HER A B C TO THE SCHOOL FOR ILLITERATES IN ORDER TO BRING MUSIC INTO THE SERVICE OF THE COLLECTIVITY AND TO MAKE IT AUDIBLE TO THE MILLIONS SIMULTANEOUSLY, THE OLD MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS WERE REPLACED BY AN ORCHESTRA OF FACTORY SIRENS "IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE TIMES" INDESTRUCTIBLE SUPERSTITION IN RUSSIA., Divination by dipping chips of wood in the icy Neva PART OF A GREAT PROCESSION OF INDUSTRY EVREINOV LENIN IN HIS STUDY EXTERIOR OF THE "CENTRAL INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH INTO HUMAN LABOUR" (GASTEV INSTITUTE) MOSCOW- The "Red Square" before the Historical Museum, decorated

Further impressions of the book
.

I include these further impressions of Fülöp-Miller’s The Mind and Face of Bolshevism to give some idea of the book’s wide-ranging influence. Readers will see that a whole host of major thinkers across the political spectrum — from reactionaries like Oswald Spengler, Nikolai Berdiaev, or Desmond MacCarthy, to liberals like Benedetto Croce, Sigmund Freud, or Stefan Zweig, and finally to progressives like Thomas Mann, Bertrand Russell, or H.G. Wells — were impressed by its contents.

.
Nikolai Berdiaev:
It is the best and most profound book on Bolshevism which has hitherto appeared outside of Russia. Fülöp-Miller’s examination is very objective and many-sided.

Benedetto Croce: …Whoever wishes to form a picture of the mechanization of life conjured up in the wake of the Bolshevik Revolution, should read this work by René Fülöp-Miller.

Rudolf Eucken: It is an extraordinary, important, and valuable work. The most significant thing is the tact with which a difficult task is approached; the reader is not forced to accept a ready-made opinion, but his judgment grows out of the immediate facts and therefore carries its own convincing weight. It is to be hoped that this magnificent work will find a widespread recognition and that in the name of the truth, it will do its good work.

Sigmund Freud: I read [Fülöp-Miller’s book] with the greatest pleasure and interest. The significance of its contents, the finish and clarity of its treatment, have brought it to pass that I have read it, as in the old days I used to do, almost in one breath.

Maximilian Harden: I have read your beautiful work, in its fine binding, from cover to cover, with the most intense interest, which never lagged. It is the sincere work of an uncommonly gifted man, who loves the truth and who knows how, in the white-heat of creation, to be guided by vision.

Sven Hedin: I admire the author who succeeded in creating this beautiful and magnificent work.

Hermann Hesse: …In my opinion, Fülöp-Miller’s book…is of chief value…and a great value that is…in the act of compilation itself, in placing before our eyes original material which has been unknown hitherto; and in the objective treatment which he has given it. The reader is not being suggested with a previously determined picture, but is given the opportunity to examine and judge for himself…

Hugo von Hofmannsthal: It is the first time, as far as I know, that this phenomenon has been appreciated from a mental and spiritual point of view as the adversary of the spirit. I hope and wish that your work may exercise a very widespread influence, and that for countless people, as for me, the Mind and Face of Bolshevism will be revealed to the inner vision.

John Haynes Holmes: It strikes me as a perfectly marvelous piece of work — a masterpiece of its kind. He has not only dealt with a great theme greatly, but has handled material which, so far as I know, is not otherwise available. He has gone a long way toward getting to the very heart of the greatest event of our time.

Dean Inge: The great work of Fülöp-Miller completes the picture drawn by Makeev and O’Hara, Osendovskii, Sarolea, and several others who know Russia from the inside. Fülöp-Miller’s book is the most instructive of all that have appeared, because he was really allowed to see all that he wished to see, and because he is not antirevolutionary…The author argues very convincingly that Bolshevism is religion, though a religion of Antichrist…Meanwhile, Fülöp-Miller’s book should be kept. It is a unique document for all who wish to study a neglected subject, the symptoms of collective mania, the fever of revolutionary epidemics.

Count Hermann Keyserling: This book is a monumental literary photograph of present-day Russia.

Selma Lagerlof: No book on Russian Bolshevism which I have read hitherto, has shown me so clearly how Bolshevism has endeavored to put its stamp on every aspect of social life. No book has explained so clearly what the pioneers of the new movement were fighting for. And therefor I owe the author true admiration and gratitude.

Emil Ludwig: It has long been necessary to attempt an unbiased interpretation of the New Russia, and Fülöp-Miller seems to me to have succeeded in this, although I am not always in agreement with his critical conclusions. After having stayed in Russia three months, however, I have recaptured much of that which stimulated and impressed me there, and have learned still more, from the reading and studying of this imposing work. It seems to me very well calculated to clarify European mistakes on this subject.

Desmond MacCarthy: From time to time a book gets written which, at any rate, seems to make contemporary events comprehensible. This may be said of…The Mind and Face of Bolshevism…It will make the Revolution more comprehensible, the effect will be to deepen the conviction that Bolshevism is the enemy of civilization…It is always good to understand one’s enemy: that is why I have chosen this book for comment.

Julius Maier-Graefe: The Mind and Face of Bolshevism is an absolutely phenomenal work.

Thomas Mann: Your work is an invaluable acquisition. It is the first great literary opportunity to make the acquaintance of Bolshevism in its whole material and spiritual implications, and to form an opinion of it.

Karin Michaelis: I should like to advise every workingman to save his pennies in order to buy this book. I consider it just as essential to the socially conscious and interested man, as the cook-book to the housewife…This book is true and clear and proud…Its shield is justice and its aim is truth…The love of human justice evidenced by the author makes the reading of this book a high and rare pleasure.

H.W. Nevinson: The wisest and fullest book I have read upon Russian thought and social conditions.

Eugen Rákosi: …Fülöp-Miller sees…with clear eyes, free of every prejudice, and recognizing the essential behind every appearance. He weighs and narrates in such interesting fashion, with such a wealth of knowledge, that we resign ourselves gladly to his guidance — Even with all the scientific works already produced on the subject, it would be impossible to really understand Russia without this contribution by René Fülöp-Miller.

Bertrand Russell: The peculiarity and at the same time the merit of this book is that it treats Bolshevism, not from the standpoint of politics or economics, but in its wider aspect, as a new way of life or a new religion. There is the most praiseworthy attempt at objectivity, and the information in the book is exceedingly interesting…There are remarkable quotations showing the intense admiration for America.
……Dr. Fülöp-Miller is himself a Socialist, but of the western kind. He expresses a view which is exactly that of the present reviewer when he says: “Once the Russians, with their religious fanaticism, had adopted the principle” of impersonality and mechanization, it followed naturally that they found religious ideas and dogmas in everything which, like organization and technique, was allied with collectivist evolution. For in Russia all this was received by the wrong organ of perception: not in the spirit of scientific conviction, but as the expression of religious feeling. Thus the elements of Marxism went astray, and landed in the wrong chamber of the Russian consciousness, in the ‘icon corner’ of his pious heart-brain…The ‘imitation of the machine’ was soon elevated to a religious need, like the ‘imitation of Christ’ of old.”
……The art of Bolshevism is more fully treated than in any other work I know of, and the material is set out so that the reader who disagrees with the author’s verdict can find the data for his disagreement…

Philip Scheidemann (former chancellor of the German Republic): One of the most valuable political books which has appeared in a long time. Quite apart from my personal opinion with regard to some details, I am perfectly willing to confess that here is a work which no one can pass by who truly wishes to study Bolshevik Russia.

Oswald Spengler: As far as my knowledge of the literature on present-day Russia goes, I know of no book which leaves such a convincing and devastating impression. I should be very happy to know that it has found a wide reception.

Wickham Steed: This is what has happened in Russia; and at this point Mr. Fülöp-Miller’s mighty volume comes in as a valuable analysis and record.

Jakob Wassermann: In its totality, it conveys an impression of stifling violence. In the midst of the general turmoil of opinions, judgments, hopes, fears, defeats, promises, political machinations and ideas of rejuvenation, for the undecided European there is scarcely any more instructive reading than this book. It opens up the view of an immensely strange and dangerous world, with implications which are certainly still in their beginnings.

H.G. Wells: This book is of the most extraordinary thoroughness and is to be considered among the most important products of recent German literature. I have read it with keen interest and find it illuminating and well done.

Franz Werfel: It has made a very powerful and soul-stirring impression on me. For several days I have been quite overcome by this sincere and painstaking interpretation, which is by far the most convincing and annihilating of anything which I have read about the New Russia. I must express my admiration of the author for his honest and vivid work.

Stefan Zweig: It is really an extraordinary achievement. For the first time, I have received a true insight into the spiritual organization of that world which has; been absolutely cut off from us In particular, its freedom from prejudice and its absolutely poised viewpoint, makes it a really instructive document for us all. I admire the energy which has understood so well how to reconstruct such an enormous material architectonically, and rejoice to see that such a work has turned out so successfully.


The golden age of bourgeois portraiture, before the rise of photography

$
0
0

.
What follows is an assortment of extremely high-resolution portraits of famous figures gleaned from various sources around the web, along with a short text by the French photographer and media critic Gisèle Freund. Almost 175 portraits are included, featuring well-known philosophers, political economists, and revolutionaries such as Thomas Münzer, Stepan Razin, René Descartes, Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson, David Ricardo, G.W.F. Hegel, Immanuel Kant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Toussaint Louverture, Maximilien Robespierre, Camille Desmoulins, Baruch Spinoza, Georges Danton, and numerous others who I’m forgetting. Included also, as mentioned, is an extract from Freund’s Photography and Society (1970), a book more than thirty years in the making.

tumblr_lzgdwcUyoH1r5fc00o1_1280 06_portrait_de_gisele_freund_c_adrienne_monnier_0 GiseleFreundautoportrait1929

Freund’s close friend and theoretical influence Walter Benjamin commented on an earlier draft of this chapter:

Study of the history of photography began about eight or ten years ago. We have a number of publications, mostly illustrated, on its infancy and its early masters. But only this most recent study has treated the subject in conjunction with the history of painting. Gisèle Freund’s study describes the rise of photography as conditioned by that of the bourgeoisie, successfully illustrating the causal connection by examining the history of the portrait. Starting from the expensive ivory miniature (the portrait technique most widely used under the ancien régime), the author describes the various procedures which contributed to making portrait production quicker and cheaper, and therefore more widespread, around 1780, sixty years before the invention of photography. Her description of the “physiognotrace” as an intermediate form between the portrait miniature and the photograph shows in exemplary fashion how technical factors can be made socially transparent. The author then explains how, with photography, technical development in art converged with the general technical standard of society, bringing the portrait within the means of wider bourgeois strata. She shows that the miniaturists were the first painters to fall victim to photography.

Besides Freund’s masterful study, I would also recommend Aby Warburg’s longish essay on “The Art of Portraiture and the Florentine Bourgeoisie” (1902). Less obviously Marxist than the remarks by Freund and Benjamin in this post — Warburg was a self-professed follower of Burckhardt — but quite complementary to them. Feel free to browse and enlarge any of the images below.

Portraits

Thomas Jefferson  Carl Mayer  -   -  -  - Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg Ricardo, David  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Mr. Bayle  Johann Ulrich Kraus  - 1715  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Hobbes   - Nürnberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Graphische Sammlung Bildnis des John Locke  Anker Smith  - um 1800  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Kant, Immanuel (Prof. für Logik und Metaphysik; Rektor; zunächst Hauslehrer und Bibliothekar)  Karl Robert Schindelmeyer, Stecher  um 1795 Bildnis des Francois-Marie Arouet de Voltaire  Jacopo Bernardi (1808)  - 1823_1847  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Desmoulins, Camille  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Puschkin, Alexander Sergejewitsch  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Leibnitz  Johann Heinrich Lips  - 1773_1817  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Iemelka Pugatscew   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra  Pascal, Jacques  - 1826_1880  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Friedrich Ernst Daniel Schleiermacher   - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Goethe  Christian Friedr. Traugott Uhlemann  - 1792  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Porträtstichsammlung Bildnis des Johann Gottfried von Herder   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung 3 Bildnis des Camille Desmoulins   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung 1 Bildnis des Guillaume Thomas François Raynal  Pierre Michel Alix  - Verlagsort- Paris  - 1791_1797  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Fichte  Johann Friedrich Bolt  - 1812  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Porträtstichsammlung Bildnis des I. D ' Alembert  Gottlob August Liebe  - nach 1775  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Bildnis des Johann George Hamann   - Nürnberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Graphische Sammlung Bildnis des René Descartes  Jacques Lubin  - 1674_1703  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis Francis Bacon, 1618 baron Verulam, 1620 viscount St. Albans  François Bonneville (1793)  - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek 1 Bildnis des Franciscus Quesnay  Jean-Charles François  - 1769  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Thomas Münzer   - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Bildnis des Denis Diderot  François Jacques Dequevauviller  - 1817_1848  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Benedictvs de Spinoza   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des Joh. Locke  Christian Gottlieb Geyser  - 1767_1800  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Porträtstichsammlung Bildnis des Jean Le Rond d'Alembert  unbekannter Künstler  - 1801_1850  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Bildnis des John Locke   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des Francis Bacon  John Chapman (1792)  - Verlagsort- London  - 1798  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Bildnis des Marie François Arouet Voltaire  Friedrich Christian Carstens  - um 1780  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des David Hume  David Martin (1736)  - Verlagsort- London  - 1767  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek Louverture, Toussaint  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 1 Bildnis Jemeljan Iwanowitsch Pugatschew Hans Andreas Joachim Hillers - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Saint-Just, Antoine Louis  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 1 Puschkin, Alexander Sergejewitsch  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 2 Bildnis des Thomas Muntzer  Romeyn de Hooghe  - 1701  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Saint-Just, Antoine Louis  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 2 Saint-Just, Antoine Louis  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 4 Bildnis Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1782 von)  Ferdinand Jagemann  - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Bildnis des Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel  Friedrich Wilhelm Bollinger  - Verlagsort- Berlin  - 1801_1825  - Nürnberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Graphische Sammlung Johann Joachim Winckelmann  Anton von Maron  -   -  - 1768_1822  - Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg Bildnis des Iean Racine  Monogrammist G E  - 1690_1741  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Porträtstichsammlung Petty, William  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Condorcet, Antoine Marquis   - Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des C. L. Reinhold  Johann Heinrich Lips  - um 1800  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig Bildnis des J. G. Fichte  Friedrich Bury  - F. A. Brockhaus   - Verlagsort- Leipzig  - nach 1850  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig Bildnis Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1782 von)  Ernst Ludwig Riepenhausen  - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Bildnis des Goethe  Lazarus Gottlieb Sichling  - Breitkopf & Härtel   - Verlagsort- Leipzig  - 1840_1860  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Göthe  Anton Graff (1736)  - Bibliographisches Institut   - faktischer Entstehungsort- Hildburghausen  - 1857_1861  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Paine, Thomas  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Louverture, Toussaint  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 2 Bildnis des Benedictus de Spinoza   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des Guillaume Thomas François Raynal  Delarue  - faktischer Entstehungsort- Brüssel  - um 1800  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Franciscus Baconus de Verulam  unbekannter Künstler  - 1627_1666  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Bildnis des Stephanvs Razinvs   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Thomas Hobbes  Wenzel Hollar  - 1665  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Bildnis des Voltaire  Joseph Friedrich Rein  - faktischer Entstehungsort- Augsburg  - 1778_1785  - Nürnberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Graphische Sammlung Bildnis des Denis Diderot  Daniel Nikolaus Chodowiecki  - 1777  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Johann Wolfgang Goethe  Martin Matthias Carl Darnmann  - Verlagsort- Sulechów  - 1803_1823  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Bildnis des Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel  Friedrich Wilhelm Bollinger  - Verlagsort- Berlin  - 1801_1825  - Nürnberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum Bildnis des Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi   - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Rasin, Stepan Timofejewitsch  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Hegel, Friedrich  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Danton, Georges  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek Bildnis des Renatus Descartes  S. Bosch (1651)  - 1651_1700  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Johann Georg Hamann  August Weger  - 1838_1892  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des Fr. Bacon De Vervlam  Johann Joachim Bockenhoffer  - Verlagsort- Straßburg  - 1654  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Diderot, Denis  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 1 Bildnis Maximilien (-François-Marie-Isidore-Joseph) Robespierre  Adolf Friedrich Teichs  - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Bildnis Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel  Julius Ludwig Sebbers  - Sachse, L., & Co.  - Verlagsort- Berlin  - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Bildnis des Jean Locke  unbekannter Künstler  - 1676_1750  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Porträtstichsammlung Bildnis des Diderot  Jean-Pierre-Julien Dupin  - Esnauts et Rapilly   - 1770_1797  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Leibnitz  Friedrich Wilhelm Nettling  - 1800  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1782 von)  Georg Friedrich Schmoll  - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Bildnis des Condorcet   - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Jokob Friedrich Fries  Müller, H. (1830)  - Königliches Lithographisches Institut   - 1830  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig Bildnis des Renatus Descartes  Peter Aubry (2)  - 1634_1666  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz  Johann Gottfried Renger  - Verlagsort- Halle (Saale)  - 1718  - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Bildnis des I. G. v. Herder  Johann Christian Benjamin Gottschick  - 1791_1844  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis Maximilien (-François-Marie-Isidore-Joseph) Robespierre  Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Bildnis des Carl Leonhard Reinhold   - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Piranesi, Giovanni Battista  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Diderot, Denis  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Marie François Arouet Voltaire  Jacob Folkema  - 1738  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Voltaire   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Lucas, Margaret  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 1 Théroigne de Méricourt, Anne Josephe  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Lessing  Golbs  - um 1800  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture  Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek 3 Bildnis des Johann Gottfried von Herder   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung 1 Bildnis Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel  Julius Ludwig Sebbers  - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Bildnis Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1782 von)  George Dawe  - Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek Bildnis des Voltaire  Johann Christian Benjamin Gottschick  - Gebrüder Schumann  - Verlagsort- Zwickau  - 1818_1832  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Denis Diderot  Augustin de Saint-Aubin  - 1776_1807  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Johann Gottfried Herder  Johann Heinrich Lips  - 1773_1817  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Bildnis des J. D' Alembert  André Pujos  - Esnauts et Rapilly   - Verlagsort- Paris  - 1774_1797  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Danton, Georges  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek 1 Bildnis des Camille Desmoulins   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des Pierre Bayle  Etienne Desrochers  - faktischer Entstehungsort- Paris  - 1706_1741  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Moses Mendelssohn  Johann Conrad Krüger  - 1768  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (Universitätsrektor 1811-1812; Vater von Immanuel Hermann von F.; Jena, Berlin, Zürich, Königsberg (Wirkungsorte); Dt. Philosoph, 1762-1814) Friedrich Wilhelm Bollinger, Stecher  Verlagsort- Zwickau vor 1825 Bildnis des Sam. Maimon  Wilhelm Arndt (1750)  - 1767_1813  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Porträtstichsammlung Saint-Just, Antoine Louis  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 3 Bildnis des v. Schelling   - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Porträtstichsammlung Bildnis des Guillaume Thomas François Raynal  E. Henne  - um 1780  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis Denis Diderot im Profil (1713-1784)  Gottlob August Liebe  - um 1760  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Bildnis des Jean Racine  François Robert Ingouf (1747)  - um 1770  - München, Staatliche Graphische Sammlung Hume, David  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Locke, John  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Henry St. John Bolingbroke  Thomas Holloway (ungesichert)  - nach 1760  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Bildnis des Johann Wolfgang von Goethe  Anton Tepplar  - 1819_1849  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Lucas, Margaret  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Diderot  Antoine Benoist (1721) (ungesichert)  - Verlagsort- Paris  - 1762_1785  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Pierre Bayle  Martin Esslinger  - Gebrüder Schumann  - faktischer Entstehungsort- Zwickau  - 1818_1832  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des René Descartes   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des Johann Georg Hamann  Monogrammist J. B. (1801)  - 1801_1866  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Friedrich Leopold von Hardenberg  Eduard Eichens  - 1845  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Saint-Just, Antoine Louis  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Franciscvs Bacon de Vervlam  Wenzel Hollar  - 1670  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Bildnis des Thomas Hobbes  Jean-Charles François (zugeschrieben)  - 1773  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Babeuf, Francois Noel  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Camille Desmoulins  Alexandre Lacauchie  - 1833_1900  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des F. W. J. v. Schelling  Albrecht Fürchtegott Schultheiß  - 1840_1900  - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig Bildnis des Renatus Cartesius  Wolfgang Philipp Kilian (ungesichert)  - 1721_1732  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Thomas Hobbes   - Nürnberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Graphische Sammlung Bildnis des M. F. Arouet de Voltaire   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz  Jean-Charles François (zugeschrieben)  - 1761_1765  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Danton, Georges  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 1 Bildnis des Petrvs Bayle  Joh. Friedrich Schmidt (1730)  - 1730_1785  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Camille Desmoulins  François Joseph Etienne Beisson  - Verlagsort- Paris  - 1793  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Rousseau, Jean Jacques  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek Bildnis des Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz  Daniel Berger (1744)  - 1769  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Johann Gottfried von Herder   - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Moses Mendelssohn  Peter Haas  - 1786_1804  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Moses Mendelssohn   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Puschkin, Alexander Sergejewitsch  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 1 Bildnis Johann Gottlieb Fichte  Bonini, ?  - um 1810?  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Bildnis des D. Hvme  Christian Gottlieb Geyser  - 1766_1803  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Hume, David  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 1 Bildnis des Thomas Hobbesivs   - Nürnberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Graphische Sammlung Marat, Jean Paul  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Danton, Georges  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Jean Racine  Carl Christian Glassbach  - 1766_1789  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Johann Gottfried von Herder   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des Joh. Georg Hamann  Winckelmann & Söhne   - Druckort- Berlin  - 1840_1850  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des J. W. v. Göthe  Antoine-Jean-Baptiste Coupé  - 1799_1852  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Johann Gottfried von Herder    -   -  -  - Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg Bildnis des Benedictus Spinoza  Karl Traugott Riedel  - 1818_1832  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Thomas More  Renold Elstrack  - 1585_1622  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Bildnis des Voltaire  Jean-Joseph Balechou  - 1752  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Constant de Rebecque, Benjamin  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des David Hume  Page (1825) (ungesichert)  - Jones and Company  - Verlagsort- London  - 1825  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis Jean le Rond d'Alembert  Pierre Michel Alix  - um 1800  - Münster, LWL-Museum für Kunst und Kultur Bildnis des Toussaint Louverture  Unbekannt  - München, Staatliche Graphische Sammlung Bildnis des M. M. I. Robespierre  Andreas Stöttrup  - um 1790  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Bildnis des Condorcet   - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Porträtstichsammlung Bildnis des Thomas Paine  Albert Schule  - Gebrüder Schumann  - Verlagsort- Zwickau  - 1822  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Desmoulins, Camille  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 1 Bildnis des Immanuel Kant  Johann Heinrich Lips  - 1791_1817  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des D. Diderot  Friedrich Wilhelm Bollinger  - Gebrüder Schumann  - Verlagsort- Zwickau  - 1818_1832  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Leibnitz  Georg Christian Schule  - 1796  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Diderot  Augustin de Saint-Aubin  - um 1800  - Halberstadt, Gleimhaus Bildnis des Pierre Bayle  Johann Martin Bernigeroth  - faktischer Entstehungsort- Leipzig  - 1741  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des D. Diderot  François Guillaume Lardy  - 1764_1812  - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Bildnis des Voltaire   - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Handschriftenabteilung Bildnis des Thomas Paine  Auguste Sandoz  - 1786_1802  - Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg Bildnis des Francis Bacon   - Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Leipzig, Porträtstichsammlung Louverture, Toussaint  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Benedictus de Spinoza  Desrochers, Étienne Jehandier  -   -  -  - Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg Constant de Rebecque, Benjamin  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung Bildnis des Immanuel Kant Johann Friedrich Bause - Verlagsort- Leipzig - 1791 - Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek Constant de Rebecque, Benjamin  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 1 Condorcet, Antoine Marquis  Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung 2

Precursors of the photographic portrait

Gisèle Freund
Photography &
Society
(1970)
.

The development of the photographic portrait corresponds to an important phase in the social development of Western Europe: the rise of the middle classes when for the first time, fairly large segments of the population attained political and economic power. To meet their resulting demand for goods, nearly everything had to be produced in greater quantities. The portrait was no exception: By having one’s portrait done an individual of the ascending classes could visually affirm his new social status both to himself and to the world at large. To meet the increased demand for portraits, the art became more and more mechanized. The photographic portrait was the final stage in this trend toward mechanization.

Around 1750 the nascent middle classes began pushing into areas that were formerly the sole domain of the aristocracy. For centuries the privilege of aristocratic circles, the portrait began to yield to democratization. Even before the French Revolution the bourgeoisie had already manifested its profound need for self-glorification, a need which provoked the development of new forms and techniques of portraiture. Photography, which entered the public domain in 1839, owes much of its popularity and rapid social development to the continuing vogue of the portrait.

During this period of transition, however, when constant political upheaval and new production methods in all industries were dissolving the remains of the feudal system in France, the rising classes had not found a characteristic means of artistic expression because they had not yet formed a clear self-image. The bourgeoisie still modeled itself after the aristocracy, which continued to set standards of taste even though it was no longer the dominant economic or political force. The rising classes adopted the artistic conventions favored by the nobility, modifying them according to their own needs.

The nobility were difficult clients. They demanded technical perfection. To suit the tastes of the day, the painter tried to avoid all bold colors in favor of more delicate ones. Canvas alone could not satisfy the aristocracy: painters experimented with any material which might better render the rich textures of velvet or silk. The miniature portrait became a favorite of the nobility. It underlined the aristocracy’s delight in personal charm. On powder boxes and pendants one could always carry about these tiny portraits of friends, lovers, or faraway members of the family.

The miniature was also one of the first portrait forms to be coveted by the bourgeoisie for the expression of its new cult of individualism. In dealing with this new clientele, the portrait painter faced a double task: he must imitate the style of the court painters, and bring down his prices. “Portrait painting in France at the time of Louis XV and Louis XVI is characterized by a tendency to falsify, to idealize each face, even that of the shopkeeper, in order to have him resemble the exemplary human type: the prince.”1 Easily adapted to its new clientele, the miniature became one of the most successful minor arts. A miniaturist could support himself by turning out thirty to fifty portraits a year and selling them at moderate prices. But even though it was popular among the middle classes for a time, it still retained its aristocratic elements, and eventually, as the middle classes became more secure, it died out.

By 1850, when the bourgeoisie had become firmly established, the miniature portrait had all but disappeared and photography deprived the last of the miniaturists of their livelihood. In Marseille, for example, there were no more than four or five miniaturists by 1850, only two of whom enjoyed enough of a reputation to be turning out fifty portraits a year. These artists earned just enough to support themselves and their families. Within a few years, there were nearly fifty photographers in town, most of whom devoted themselves to portrait photography and earned a good deal more than the best-known miniaturists. The photographers turned out an average of twelve hundred pictures annually. Sold at 15 gold francs apiece, these brought a yearly total of 18,000 francs and a combined income of nearly one million. Equally dramatic changes took place in all the large cities in France and abroad.2 For one-tenth the price of a painted portrait, the photographer could furnish a likeness which satisfied the taste of the bourgeois as well as the needs of his pocketbook.

Art forms in their origin and evolution parallel contemporary developments in the social structure. The artistic efforts of the era with which we are concerned reflect the democratic ideals of the French Revolution of 1789, which demanded “the rights of man and of the citizen.” The revolutionary citizen who helped take the Bastille and who defended the rights of his class at the National Assembly reflected the same ideals in posing for the physiognotracists of Paris.

The physiognotrace, which represented a major step in the mechanization of the portrait, had an interesting predecessor. During the reign of Louis XIV a new process had been invented for making portraits. By cutting profiles from black, shiny paper, the portraitist could finish his work in no time. Many skilled craftsmen took up this new method and worked as itinerant artists at festive gatherings, from court balls to local fairs. The cut portrait, named silhouette after the finance minister of that time, achieved international popularity.

Monsieur de Silhouette was not, as has been claimed, the creator of the cutouts that put his name into common usage. The actual inventor is unknown. The word silhouette, which includes by extension all figures seen in shadowed profile, appeared in the middle of the eighteenth century. Its etymology is quite unusual. Named Controller General in 1750 when France was heading toward bankruptcy, M. de Silhouette levied, with some difficulty, certain public taxes to boost government revenues. For a time he was considered the savior of the French State, but the deficit was too great and he was forced to delay certain payments while suspending others entirely. His popularity plummeted, and the public became spiteful. A new style of clothing appeared: narrow coats without pleats and breeches without pockets. Without money to store in them, what good were pockets? These clothes were said to be styled à la Silhouette, and to this day, anything as insubstantial as a shadow is called a silhouette; in a short time, the brilliant Controller General had become no more than a shadow of himself.3

The silhouette cutter remained fashionable until the time of Bonaparte. Hawkers selling silhouettes could be found at public balls of the Directory and Consulate. Artists improving on the new portrait technique embellished the cut shapes by retouching and engraving them with needles. An abstract form of representation, the silhouette portrait required no special training from the cutter. For a time, the public flocked to silhouette cutters, pleased with their fast service and modest prices. The invention of the silhouette did not lead to a large-scale industry, but it did encourage the development of another new technique popular in France between 1786 and 1830 — the physiognotrace.

The inventor of the new technique was Gilles-Louis Chrétien. Born in 1754, the son of a court musician at Versailles, Chrétien began in his father’s profession but, hoping to make a better living, he soon chose to become an engraver. His choice may have been a disappointment at first, for the competition was fierce, and the work demanded much time and care. The few portraits which he produced at the start took too long to bring substantial remuneration, and commissions did not come frequently enough to cover expenses. Soon Chrétien began experimenting with faster ways to turn out portraits. In 1786 he successfully devised an apparatus which mechanized the technique of engraving and saved considerable time. The invention combined two methods of portraiture, the silhouette and the engraving, thus creating a new art. He named his device the physiognotrace.

The physiognotrace was based on the well-known principle of the pantograph, an instrument which mechanically reproduces a drawing or diagram. The pantograph is made of rods in the shape of two joined parallelograms. The device moves in a horizontal plane, one parallelogram passing over a design, the other over a blank paper ready to receive the design. With a dry stylus attached to the comer of the first parallelogram, the operator follows the contours of the design. An inked stylus, attached to the second, automatically reproduces the design on the blank page at a scale determined by the distance between each stylus. The physiognotrace was much larger than the pantograph and differed in two other respects: the device was held upright so that the features of a seated model could be traced, and it was fitted with an eyepiece in place of the dry stylus which could pick out the outlines of an object in space. After posing his model, the physiognotracist, seated on a stepladder behind the apparatus, maneuvered it by aiming his eye at the features to be reproduced. The distance from the model to the device, as well as the position of the stylus, determined the relative scale of the final image.4

The artistic ability and the personality of the painter played a great role in the miniature portrait. But these qualities were drastically reduced in the silhouette cutter; his was merely a manual skill. At the most his talent can be seen in artful retouching of the features of a profile. The physiognotracist did not even need that much skill. He had only to draw the contours of the figure which were then transferred and engraved on a metal plaque. Since a single session with the model was sufficient, these portraits were moderately priced. Many physiognotracists sold them in series at even lower rates.

In 1788, Chretien came to Paris, hoping to benefit from his invention. He took on a miniaturist named Quenedey as a partner who, seeing the success of the new venture, soon left to start a rival establishment. Other engravers and miniaturists adopted the new technique because their own professions, closed out by the physiognotracists, no longer provided a means of support. Quenedey, Gonord, and Chrétien were the best known of all. The first two established themselves in the galleries of the Palais-Royal, at that time the center of fashionable Paris. Chrétien opened his studio on the rue Saint-Honoré.

All the celebrities of the capital soon found their way to the physiognotracists. The important personalities of the Revolution, of the Empire, of the Restoration, as well as a great number of unknowns posed in front of the physiognotrace, which copied their profiles with mathematical exactitude. Among Chrétien’s productions one finds the heads of Bailly, Marat, Pétion — all with the tricolor sash — Robespierre, and many others. Quenedey traced the profiles of Madame de Staël, Louis XVIII, Saint-Just, Elisa Bonaparte, and numerous other notables.5

The physiognotracists were good businessmen. Soon they were offering small portraits on wood, ivory, or medallions to be sold at three gold francs apiece. The customer had to buy at least two portraits and make a deposit of half the payment in advance.6 For six gold francs they sold what they called silhouettes à l’anglaise to which they added hairstyling and costume. The pose for these lasted only a minute. Gonord also made cameos and miniature portraits from silhouettes; his “colored silhouettes,” as he called them, sold for twelve gold francs and required a pose of only three minutes.7

Physiognotrace portraits had an increasingly detrimental effect on miniature painting and engraving. At the Salon of 1793, one hundred physiognotrace portraits were exhibited. Just three years later, there were twelve rooms showing fifty physiognotrace portraits each.8

The physiognotracists, especially the three best known, Quenedey, Gonord, and Chrétien, maintained a bitter rivalry. Each accused the others of having stolen his most recent improvements, and they publicized their disputes in the Paris newspapers.9 Hoping to win the favor of the public, each claimed to be the sole inventor of the various technical processes. Realizing that there were many interested amateurs, Gonord began to manufacture sets of equipment as well. All the physiognotracists made a good deal of money from the invention. Eager to have their portraits made, but unwilling to spend much time or money, most people preferred to go to the physiognotracist who, after only a short sitting, could produce a portrait that was very similar to a painted miniature for a low price. Soon, the physiognotrace portrait replaced the miniature.

The same tendencies were evident throughout the French business world. The type and quality of merchandise on hand varied with the number of buyers; merchandise of poorer quality at a lower price replaced more expensive merchandise of superior quality. Luxury, bought cheaply, became the best guarantee of good business.

So far we have dealt with the social and technical side of the evolution from miniature to physiognotrace. But consider the difference between the delicate art of the miniature, where the artist spends days and weeks carefully reproducing a face, and this virtually mechanized process of reproduction. The portraits obtained with the physiognotrace now are only of documentary value: they generally show the same flat, stylized, frozen expression. In the works of the miniaturist, one can always see more than a simple likeness between model and copy. The artist is free to emphasize whatever characteristics he chooses, and thereby can evoke the spirit of the sitter as well. The physiognotracist can reproduce facial contours with mathematical precision, but the resulting portrait lacks expression because it has not been executed with an artist’s intuitive feeling for character.

The physiognotrace can be considered the symbol of a period of transition between the old regime and the new. It is the predecessor of the camera in the technical evolution that has led to the coin-operated portrait machines and Polaroids of today. There will always be a sector in the art world which is more concerned with speed and quantity than with art; the physiognotracist of 1790 is not far removed from the passport photographer of the twentieth century.

Thanks to the physiognotrace, a large portion of the French bourgeoisie gained access to portraits. But the process did not necessarily capture the interest of the majority of the middle class, much less the lower class. It does not, for example, seem to have been practiced in the provinces. Individual labor was still dominant there in the execution of a portrait. It was not until a totally impersonal technique came into use with the advent of photography that the portrait could be completely democratized.

Although the physiognotrace had nothing to do with the technical development of photography, it can be argued that it was its ideological predecessor.

Notes


1 Wilhelm Waetzold, Die Kunst des Porträts, Leipzig, 1908, p. 57·
2 Vidal, “Mémoire de la séance du 15 novembre 1868 de la société statistique de Marseille,” Bulletin de la société française de photographie, 1871, pp. 37, 38, 40.
3 Cf. René Hennequin, Edm. Quenedey, portraitiste au physionotrace, Troyes, 1926.
4 Cf. Cromer, “Le secret du physionotrace,” Bulletin de la société archéologique, historique, et artistique, “Le Vieux Papier,” 26th year, October 1925.
5 Cf. Cabinet des estampes de la Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.
6 Cf. Gonard’s advertisement in Journal de Paris, 28 July 1788.
7 Cf. Quenedey’s advertisement in Journal de Paris, 21 July 1788.
8 Cf. Vivarez, Le physionotrace.
9 Cf. Journal de Paris, 2I July 1788.


Viewing all 250 articles
Browse latest View live